Nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome (NBCCS) is characterized by the development of multiple jaw keratocysts, frequently beginning in the second decade of life, and/or basal cell carcinomas (BCCs) usually from the third decade onward. Approximately 60% of individuals have a recognizable appearance with macrocephaly, frontal bossing, coarse facial features, and facial milia. Most individuals have skeletal anomalies (e.g., bifid ribs, wedge-shaped vertebrae). Ectopic calcification, particularly in the falx, is present in more than 90% of affected individuals by age 20 years. Cardiac and ovarian fibromas occur in approximately 2% and 20% of individuals respectively. Approximately 5% of all children with NBCCS develop medulloblastoma (primitive neuroectodermal tumor), generally the desmoplastic subtype. The risk of developing medulloblastoma is substantially higher in individuals with an SUFU pathogenic variant (33%) than in those with a PTCH1 pathogenic variant (<2%). Peak incidence is at age one to two years. Life expectancy in NBCCS is not significantly different from average.

Dejerine-Sottas neuropathy is a demyelinating peripheral neuropathy with onset in infancy. It can show autosomal dominant or recessive inheritance. Affected individuals have delayed motor development due to severe distal motor and sensory impairment, resulting in difficulties in gait. Some patients have generalized hypotonia in infancy. Other features may include pes cavus, scoliosis, and sensory ataxia. Nerve conduction velocities are severely decreased (sometimes less than 10 m/s), and sural nerve biopsy shows severe loss of myelinated fibers (summary by Baets et al., 2011).

Incontinentia pigmenti (IP) is a disorder that affects the skin, hair, teeth, nails, eyes, and central nervous system; it occurs primarily in females and on occasion in males. Characteristic skin lesions evolve through four stages: I. Blistering (birth to age ~4 months). II. Wart-like rash (for several months). III. Swirling macular hyperpigmentation (age ~6 months into adulthood). IV. Linear hypopigmentation. Alopecia, hypodontia, abnormal tooth shape, and dystrophic nails are observed. Neovascularization of the retina, present in some individuals, predisposes to retinal detachment. Neurologic findings including seizures, intellectual disability, and developmental delays are occasionally seen.

FBN1-related Marfan syndrome (Marfan syndrome), a systemic disorder of connective tissue with a high degree of clinical variability, comprises a broad phenotypic continuum ranging from mild (features of Marfan syndrome in one or a few systems) to severe and rapidly progressive neonatal multiorgan disease. Cardinal manifestations involve the ocular, skeletal, and cardiovascular systems. Ocular findings include myopia (>50% of affected individuals); ectopia lentis (seen in approximately 60% of affected individuals); and an increased risk for retinal detachment, glaucoma, and early cataracts. Skeletal system manifestations include bone overgrowth and joint laxity; disproportionately long extremities for the size of the trunk (dolichostenomelia); overgrowth of the ribs that can push the sternum in (pectus excavatum) or out (pectus carinatum); and scoliosis that ranges from mild to severe and progressive. The major morbidity and early mortality in Marfan syndrome relate to the cardiovascular system and include dilatation of the aorta at the level of the sinuses of Valsalva (predisposing to aortic tear and rupture), mitral valve prolapse with or without regurgitation, tricuspid valve prolapse, and enlargement of the proximal pulmonary artery. Severe and prolonged regurgitation of the mitral and/or aortic valve can predispose to left ventricular dysfunction and occasionally heart failure. With proper management, the life expectancy of someone with Marfan syndrome approximates that of the general population.

The X-linked otopalatodigital (X-OPD) spectrum disorders, characterized primarily by skeletal dysplasia, include the following: Otopalatodigital syndrome type 1 (OPD1). Otopalatodigital syndrome type 2 (OPD2). Frontometaphyseal dysplasia type 1 (FMD1). Melnick-Needles syndrome (MNS). Terminal osseous dysplasia with pigmentary skin defects (TODPD). In OPD1, most manifestations are present at birth; females can present with severity similar to affected males, although some have only mild manifestations. In OPD2, females are less severely affected than related affected males. Most males with OPD2 die during the first year of life, usually from thoracic hypoplasia resulting in pulmonary insufficiency. Males who live beyond the first year of life are usually developmentally delayed and require respiratory support and assistance with feeding. In FMD1, females are less severely affected than related affected males. Males do not experience a progressive skeletal dysplasia but may have joint contractures and hand and foot malformations. Progressive scoliosis is observed in both affected males and females. In MNS, wide phenotypic variability is observed; some individuals are diagnosed in adulthood, while others require respiratory support and have reduced longevity. MNS in males results in perinatal lethality in all recorded cases. TODPD, seen only in females, is characterized by a skeletal dysplasia that is most prominent in the digits, pigmentary defects of the skin, and recurrent digital fibromata.

Mucopolysaccharidosis type VI (MPS6) is an autosomal recessive lysosomal storage disorder resulting from a deficiency of arylsulfatase B. Clinical features and severity are variable, but usually include short stature, hepatosplenomegaly, dysostosis multiplex, stiff joints, corneal clouding, cardiac abnormalities, and facial dysmorphism. Intelligence is usually normal (Azevedo et al., 2004).

Proteus syndrome is characterized by progressive segmental or patchy overgrowth most commonly affecting the skeleton, skin, adipose, and central nervous systems. In most individuals Proteus syndrome has modest or no manifestations at birth, develops and progresses rapidly beginning in the toddler period, and relentlessly progresses through childhood, causing severe overgrowth and disfigurement. It is associated with a range of tumors, pulmonary complications, and a striking predisposition to deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism.

Mucopolysaccharidosis type III (MPS III) is a multisystem lysosomal storage disease characterized by progressive central nervous system degeneration manifest as severe intellectual disability (ID), developmental regression, and other neurologic manifestations including autism spectrum disorder (ASD), behavioral problems, and sleep disturbances. Disease onset is typically before age ten years. Disease course may be rapidly or slowly progressive; some individuals with an extremely attenuated disease course present in mid-to-late adulthood with early-onset dementia with or without a history of ID. Systemic manifestations can include musculoskeletal problems (joint stiffness, contractures, scoliosis, and hip dysplasia), hearing loss, respiratory tract and sinopulmonary infections, and cardiac disease (valvular thickening, defects in the cardiac conduction system). Neurologic decline is seen in all affected individuals; however, clinical severity varies within and among the four MPS III subtypes (defined by the enzyme involved) and even among members of the same family. Death usually occurs in the second or third decade of life secondary to neurologic regression or respiratory tract infections.

Williams syndrome (WS) is characterized by cardiovascular disease (elastin arteriopathy, peripheral pulmonary stenosis, supravalvar aortic stenosis, hypertension), distinctive facies, connective tissue abnormalities, intellectual disability (usually mild), a specific cognitive profile, unique personality characteristics, growth abnormalities, and endocrine abnormalities (hypercalcemia, hypercalciuria, hypothyroidism, and early puberty). Feeding difficulties often lead to poor weight gain in infancy. Hypotonia and hyperextensible joints can result in delayed attainment of motor milestones.

Roussy-Levy syndrome is an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by early onset of prominent ataxia followed by late onset of mild motor involvement. Symptoms progress very slowly, and affected individuals may remain ambulatory throughout life (Auer-Grumbach et al., 1998; Plante-Bordeneuve et al., 1999).

DA3, or Gordon syndrome, is distinguished from other distal arthrogryposes by short stature and cleft palate (summary by Bamshad et al., 2009). There are 2 syndromes with features overlapping those of DA3 that are also caused by heterozygous mutation in PIEZO2: distal arthrogryposis type 5 (DA5; 108145) and Marden-Walker syndrome (MWKS; 248700), which are distinguished by the presence of ocular abnormalities and mental retardation, respectively. McMillin et al. (2014) suggested that the 3 disorders may represent variable expressivity of the same condition. For a phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of distal arthrogryposis, see DA1 (108120).

Congenital contractural arachnodactyly (CCA) appears to comprise a broad phenotypic spectrum. Classic CCA is characterized by arachnodactyly; flexion contractures of multiple joints including elbows, knees, hips, ankles, and/or fingers; kyphoscoliosis (usually progressive); a marfanoid habitus (a long and slender build, dolichostenomelia, pectus deformity, muscular hypoplasia, highly arched palate); and abnormal "crumpled" ears. At the mildest end, parents who are diagnosed retrospectively upon evaluation of their more severely affected child may show a lean body build, mild arachnodactyly, mild contractures without impairment, and minor ear abnormalities. At the most severe end is "severe CCA with cardiovascular and/or gastrointestinal anomalies," a rare phenotype in infants with pronounced features of CCA (severe crumpling of the ears, arachnodactyly, contractures, congenital scoliosis, and/or hypotonia) and severe cardiovascular and/or gastrointestinal anomalies. Phenotypic expression can vary within and between families.

An autosomal recessive subtype of cerebrooculofacioskeletal syndrome caused by mutation(s) in the ERCC6 gene, encoding DNA excision repair protein ERCC-6.

Diastrophic dysplasia (DTD) is characterized by limb shortening, normal-sized head, hitchhiker thumbs, spinal deformities (scoliosis, exaggerated lumbar lordosis, cervical kyphosis), and contractures of the large joints with deformities and early-onset osteoarthritis. Other typical findings are ulnar deviation of the fingers, gap between the first and second toes, and clubfoot. On occasion, the disease can be lethal at birth, but most affected individuals survive the neonatal period and develop physical limitations with normal intelligence.

The Marshall-Smith syndrome (MRSHSS) is a malformation syndrome characterized by accelerated skeletal maturation, relative failure to thrive, respiratory difficulties, mental retardation, and unusual facies, including prominent forehead, shallow orbits, blue sclerae, depressed nasal bridge, and micrognathia (Adam et al., 2005).

Freeman-Sheldon syndrome (FSS), or DA2A, is phenotypically similar to DA1. In addition to contractures of the hands and feet, FSS is characterized by oropharyngeal abnormalities, scoliosis, and a distinctive face that includes a very small oral orifice (often only a few millimeters in diameter at birth), puckered lips, and an H-shaped dimple of the chin; hence, FSS has been called 'whistling face syndrome.' The limb phenotypes of DA1 and FSS may be so similar that they can only be distinguished by the differences in facial morphology (summary by Bamshad et al., 2009). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of distal arthrogryposis, see DA1 (108120).

The autosomal dominant TRPV4 disorders (previously considered to be clinically distinct phenotypes before their molecular basis was discovered) are now grouped into neuromuscular disorders and skeletal dysplasias; however, the overlap within each group is considerable. Affected individuals typically have either neuromuscular or skeletal manifestations alone, and in only rare instances an overlap syndrome has been reported. The three autosomal dominant neuromuscular disorders (mildest to most severe) are: Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2C. Scapuloperoneal spinal muscular atrophy. Congenital distal spinal muscular atrophy. The autosomal dominant neuromuscular disorders are characterized by a congenital-onset, static, or later-onset progressive peripheral neuropathy with variable combinations of laryngeal dysfunction (i.e., vocal fold paresis), respiratory dysfunction, and joint contractures. The six autosomal dominant skeletal dysplasias (mildest to most severe) are: Familial digital arthropathy-brachydactyly. Autosomal dominant brachyolmia. Spondylometaphyseal dysplasia, Kozlowski type. Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia, Maroteaux type. Parastremmatic dysplasia. Metatropic dysplasia. The skeletal dysplasia is characterized by brachydactyly (in all 6); the five that are more severe have short stature that varies from mild to severe with progressive spinal deformity and involvement of the long bones and pelvis. In the mildest of the autosomal dominant TRPV4 disorders life span is normal; in the most severe it is shortened. Bilateral progressive sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) can occur with both autosomal dominant neuromuscular disorders and skeletal dysplasias.

The autosomal dominant TRPV4 disorders (previously considered to be clinically distinct phenotypes before their molecular basis was discovered) are now grouped into neuromuscular disorders and skeletal dysplasias; however, the overlap within each group is considerable. Affected individuals typically have either neuromuscular or skeletal manifestations alone, and in only rare instances an overlap syndrome has been reported. The three autosomal dominant neuromuscular disorders (mildest to most severe) are: Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2C. Scapuloperoneal spinal muscular atrophy. Congenital distal spinal muscular atrophy. The autosomal dominant neuromuscular disorders are characterized by a congenital-onset, static, or later-onset progressive peripheral neuropathy with variable combinations of laryngeal dysfunction (i.e., vocal fold paresis), respiratory dysfunction, and joint contractures. The six autosomal dominant skeletal dysplasias (mildest to most severe) are: Familial digital arthropathy-brachydactyly. Autosomal dominant brachyolmia. Spondylometaphyseal dysplasia, Kozlowski type. Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia, Maroteaux type. Parastremmatic dysplasia. Metatropic dysplasia. The skeletal dysplasia is characterized by brachydactyly (in all 6); the five that are more severe have short stature that varies from mild to severe with progressive spinal deformity and involvement of the long bones and pelvis. In the mildest of the autosomal dominant TRPV4 disorders life span is normal; in the most severe it is shortened. Bilateral progressive sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) can occur with both autosomal dominant neuromuscular disorders and skeletal dysplasias.

Spondylocostal dysostosis (SCDO), defined radiographically as multiple segmentation defects of the vertebrae (M-SDV) in combination with abnormalities of the ribs, is characterized clinically by: a short trunk in proportion to height; short neck; non-progressive mild scoliosis in most affected individuals, and occasionally, more significant scoliosis. Respiratory function in neonates may be compromised by reduced size of the thorax. By age two years lung growth may improve sufficiently to support relatively normal growth and development; however, even then life-threatening complications can occur, especially pulmonary hypertension in children with severely restricted lung capacity from birth. Males with SCDO appear to be at increased risk for inguinal hernia.

Pallister-Killian syndrome (PKS) is a dysmorphic condition involving most organ systems, but is also characterized by a tissue-limited mosaicism; most fibroblasts have 47 chromosomes with an extra small metacentric chromosome, whereas the karyotype of lymphocytes is normal. The extra metacentric chromosome is an isochromosome for part of the short arm of chromosome 12: i(12)(p10) (Peltomaki et al., 1987; Warburton et al., 1987).

PLOD1-related kyphoscoliotic Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (kEDS) is an autosomal recessive generalized connective tissue disorder characterized by hypotonia, early-onset kyphoscoliosis, and generalized joint hypermobility in association with skin fragility and ocular abnormality. Intelligence is normal. Life span may be normal, but affected individuals are at risk for rupture of medium-sized arteries. Adults with severe kyphoscoliosis are at risk for complications from restrictive lung disease, recurrent pneumonia, and cardiac failure.

For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 1, see CMT1B (118200). CMT1A is the most common form of CMT. The average age of onset of clinical symptoms is 12.2 +/- 7.3 years. Slow nerve conduction velocity (NCV) less than 38 m/s is highly diagnostic and is a 100% penetrant phenotype independent of age (Lupski et al., 1991, 1992).

Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease is a sensorineural peripheral polyneuropathy. Affecting approximately 1 in 2,500 individuals, Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease is the most common inherited disorder of the peripheral nervous system (Skre, 1974). Autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, and X-linked forms have been recognized. Classification On the basis of electrophysiologic properties and histopathology, CMT has been divided into primary peripheral demyelinating (type 1, or HMSNI) and primary peripheral axonal (type 2, or HMSNII) neuropathies. The demyelinating neuropathies classified as CMT type 1 are characterized by severely reduced motor NCVs (less than 38 m/s) and segmental demyelination and remyelination with onion bulb formations on nerve biopsy. The axonal neuropathies classified as CMT type 2 are characterized by normal or mildly reduced NCVs and chronic axonal degeneration and regeneration on nerve biopsy (see CMT2A1; 118210). Distal hereditary motor neuropathy (dHMN) (see 158590), or spinal CMT, is characterized by exclusive motor involvement and sparing of sensory nerves (Pareyson, 1999). McAlpine (1989) proposed that the forms of CMT with very slow nerve conduction be given the gene symbol CMT1A (118220) and CMT1B, CMT1A being the gene on chromosome 17 and CMT1B being the gene on chromosome 1. CMT2 was the proposed symbol for the autosomal locus responsible for the moderately slow nerve conduction form of the disease (axonal). For a phenotypic description and discussion of genetic heterogeneity of the various subtypes of CMT, see CMTX1 (302800), CMT2A1 (118210), CMT3 (DSS; 145900), CMT4A (214400), and CMTDIB (606482). Genetic Heterogeneity of Autosomal Dominant Demyelinating CMT1 Autosomal dominant demyelinating CMT1 is a genetically heterogeneous disorder and can be caused by mutations in different genes; see CMT1A (118220), CMT1C (601098), CMT1D (607678), CMT1E (607734), CMT1F (607734), CMT1G (618279), CMT1H (619764), CMT1I (619742), and CMT1J (620111). See also 608236 for a related phenotype characterized by isolated slowed nerve conduction velocities (NCVs).

The findings in X-linked chondrodysplasia punctata 2 (CDPX2) range from fetal demise with multiple malformations and severe growth retardation to much milder manifestations, including females with no recognizable physical abnormalities. At least 95% of live-born individuals with CDPX2 are female. Characteristic features include growth deficiency; distinctive craniofacial appearance; chondrodysplasia punctata (stippling of the epiphyses of the long bones, vertebrae, trachea, and distal ends of the ribs); often asymmetric rhizomelic shortening of limbs; scoliosis; linear or blotchy scaling ichthyosis in the newborn; later appearance of linear or whorled atrophic patches involving hair follicles (follicular atrophoderma); coarse hair with scarring alopecia; and cataracts.

A rare genetic disease characterized by childhood onset of bilateral progressive sensorineural hearing loss, ocular anomalies (myopia, cataract, retinitis pigmentosa), central and peripheral nervous system features (dementia, epilepsy, ataxia, peripheral neuropathy), ectodermal features (skin atrophy, alopecia, dental caries), and skeletal anomalies (bone cysts, joint stiffness, scoliosis, kyphosis). Laboratory examination may reveal elevated cerebrospinal fluid protein.

Troyer syndrome is characterized by progressive spastic paraparesis, dysarthria, pseudobulbar palsy, distal amyotrophy, short stature, and subtle skeletal abnormalities. Most affected children exhibit delays in walking and speech and difficulty in managing oral secretions, followed by increased lower-limb spasticity and slow deterioration in both gait and speech. Mild cerebellar signs are common. The most severely affected individuals have choreoathetosis. Emotional lability / difficulty in controlling emotions and affective disorders, such as inappropriate euphoria and/or crying, are frequently described. Life expectancy is normal.

Progressive pseudorheumatoid dysplasia (PPD) is a skeletal dysplasia characterized by predominant involvement of articular cartilage with progressive joint stiffness and enlargement in the absence of inflammation. Onset – typically between ages three and six years – begins with the involvement of the interphalangeal joints. Over time, involvement of large joints and the spine causes significant joint contractures, gait disturbance, and scoliosis and/or kyphosis, resulting in abnormal posture and significant morbidity. Despite the considerable arthropathy, pain is not a major presenting feature of this condition. Initially height is normal; however, short stature (<3rd centile) becomes evident in adolescence as the skeletal changes progress.

Osteoporosis-pseudoglioma syndrome (OPPG) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by severe osteoporosis and visual disturbance from childhood. Juvenile onset of osteoporosis manifests as long-bone fractures, vertebral compression fractures, kyphoscoliosis, deformity of extremities, and short stature. Congenital or early-onset visual disturbances arise from ophthalmologic problems including retinal detachment and microphthalmia (summary by Narumi et al., 2010).

Geroderma osteodysplasticum (GO) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by skin wrinkling limited to the dorsa of hands and feet and to the abdomen, bowed long bones, and osteopenia with frequent fractures. There is a distinctive facial appearance with droopy skin at the cheeks, maxillary hypoplasia, and large ears. Adult patients appear prematurely aged (summary by Rajab et al., 2008).

Floating-Harbor syndrome (FHS) is characterized by typical craniofacial features; low birth weight, normal head circumference, and short stature; bone age delay that normalizes between ages six and 12 years; skeletal anomalies (brachydactyly, clubbing, clinodactyly, short thumbs, prominent joints, clavicular abnormalities); severe receptive and expressive language impairment; hypernasality and high-pitched voice; and intellectual disability that is typically mild to moderate. Difficulties with temperament and behavior that are present in many children tend to improve in adulthood. Other features can include hyperopia and/or strabismus, conductive hearing loss, seizures, gastroesophageal reflux, renal anomalies (e.g., hydronephrosis / renal pelviectasis, cysts, and/or agenesis), and genital anomalies (e.g., hypospadias and/or undescended testes).

Homocystinuria caused by cystathionine ß-synthase (CBS) deficiency is characterized by involvement of the eye (ectopia lentis and/or severe myopia), skeletal system (excessive height, long limbs, scolioisis, and pectus excavatum), vascular system (thromboembolism), and CNS (developmental delay/intellectual disability). All four ? or only one ? of the systems can be involved; expressivity is variable for all of the clinical signs. It is not unusual for a previously asymptomatic individual to present in adult years with only a thromboembolic event that is often cerebrovascular. Two phenotypic variants are recognized, B6-responsive homocystinuria and B6-non-responsive homocystinuria. B6-responsive homocystinuria is usually milder than the non-responsive variant. Thromboembolism is the major cause of early death and morbidity. IQ in individuals with untreated homocystinuria ranges widely, from 10 to 138. In B6-responsive individuals the mean IQ is 79 versus 57 for those who are B6-non-responsive. Other features that may occur include: seizures, psychiatric problems, extrapyramidal signs (e.g., dystonia), hypopigmentation of the skin and hair, malar flush, livedo reticularis, and pancreatitis.

Microphthalmia-ankyloblepharon-intellectual disability syndrome is characterized by microphthalmia, ankyloblepharon and intellectual deficit. It has been described in seven male patients from two generations of a Northern Ireland family. The causative gene is localized to the Xq27-q28 region. The syndrome is transmitted as an X-linked recessive trait.

Snyder-Robinson syndrome (SRS) is an X-linked intellectual disability syndrome characterized by asthenic build, facial dysmorphism with a prominent lower lip, kyphoscoliosis, osteoporosis, speech abnormalities, and seizures. Developmental delay usually presents as failure to meet early developmental milestones and then evolves to moderate to profound intellectual disability (which appears to remain stable over time) and variable motor disability. Asthenic habitus and low muscle mass usually develop during the first year, even in males who are ambulatory. During the first decade, males with SRS develop osteoporosis, resulting in fractures in the absence of trauma.

The spectrum of MECP2-related phenotypes in females ranges from classic Rett syndrome to variant Rett syndrome with a broader clinical phenotype (either milder or more severe than classic Rett syndrome) to mild learning disabilities; the spectrum in males ranges from severe neonatal encephalopathy to pyramidal signs, parkinsonism, and macroorchidism (PPM-X) syndrome to severe syndromic/nonsyndromic intellectual disability. Females: Classic Rett syndrome, a progressive neurodevelopmental disorder primarily affecting girls, is characterized by apparently normal psychomotor development during the first six to 18 months of life, followed by a short period of developmental stagnation, then rapid regression in language and motor skills, followed by long-term stability. During the phase of rapid regression, repetitive, stereotypic hand movements replace purposeful hand use. Additional findings include fits of screaming and inconsolable crying, autistic features, panic-like attacks, bruxism, episodic apnea and/or hyperpnea, gait ataxia and apraxia, tremors, seizures, and acquired microcephaly. Males: Severe neonatal-onset encephalopathy, the most common phenotype in affected males, is characterized by a relentless clinical course that follows a metabolic-degenerative type of pattern, abnormal tone, involuntary movements, severe seizures, and breathing abnormalities. Death often occurs before age two years.

X-linked intellectual development disorder-19 (XLID19) is characterized by mildly to moderately impaired intellectual development. Carrier females may be mildly affected. Mutation in the RPS6KA3 gene also causes Coffin-Lowry syndrome (CLS; 303600), a syndrome with impaired intellectual deveopment, dysmorphic facial features, and skeletal anomalies. Some patients with RPS6KA3 mutations have an intermediate phenotype with impaired intellectual development and only mild anomalies reminiscent of CLS. These individuals have mutations resulting in some residual protein function, which likely explains the milder phenotype (summary by Field et al., 2006).

Hajdu-Cheney syndrome (HJCYS) is a rare autosomal dominant skeletal disorder characterized by short stature, coarse and dysmorphic facies, bowing of the long bones, and vertebral anomalies. Facial features include hypertelorism, bushy eyebrows, micrognathia, small mouth with dental anomalies, low-set ears, and short neck. There is progressive focal bone destruction, including acroosteolysis and generalized osteoporosis. Additional and variable features include hearing loss, renal cysts, and cardiovascular anomalies (summary by Ramos et al., 1998; Simpson et al., 2011; Isidor et al., 2011).

Merosin-deficient congenital muscular dystrophy is an autosomal recessive form of muscular dystrophy characterized by muscle weakness apparent at birth or in the first 6 months of life. Patients show hypotonia, poor suck and cry, and delayed motor development; most never achieve independent ambulation. Most patients also have periventricular white matter abnormalities on brain imaging, but mental retardation and/or seizures occur only rarely (summary by Xiong et al., 2015).

Sponastrime dysplasia is an autosomal recessive spondyloepimetaphyseal dysplasia (SEMD) named for characteristic clinical and radiographic findings, including spine (spondylar) abnormalities, midface hypoplasia with a depressed nasal bridge, and striation of the metaphyses. Additional features include disproportionate short stature with exaggerated lumbar lordosis, scoliosis, coxa vara, limited elbow extension, small dysplastic epiphyses, childhood cataracts, short dental roots, and hypogammaglobulinemia. Radiographically, the abnormalities of the lumbar vertebral bodies are suggested to be the most specific finding because the characteristic metaphyseal striations may not be apparent at young ages. Striking clinical variability in presentation, severity, and associated features has been observed (summary by Burrage et al., 2019).

Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 4D (CMT4D) is an autosomal recessive disorder of the peripheral nervous system characterized by early-onset distal muscle weakness and atrophy, foot deformities, and sensory loss affecting all modalities. Affected individuals develop deafness by the third decade of life (summary by Okamoto et al., 2014). For a phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal recessive Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, see CMT4A (214400).

Nemaline myopathy is divided into six types. In order of decreasing severity, the types are: severe congenital, Amish, intermediate congenital, typical congenital, childhood-onset, and adult-onset. The types are distinguished by the age when symptoms first appear and the severity of symptoms; however, there is overlap among the various types. The severe congenital type is the most life-threatening. Most individuals with this type do not survive past early childhood due to respiratory failure. The Amish type solely affects the Old Order Amish population of Pennsylvania and is typically fatal in early childhood. The most common type of nemaline myopathy is the typical congenital type, which is characterized by muscle weakness and feeding problems beginning in infancy. Most of these individuals do not have severe breathing problems and can walk unassisted. People with the childhood-onset type usually develop muscle weakness in adolescence. The adult-onset type is the mildest of all the various types. People with this type usually develop muscle weakness between ages 20 and 50.\n\nNemaline myopathy is a disorder that primarily affects skeletal muscles, which are muscles that the body uses for movement. People with nemaline myopathy have muscle weakness (myopathy) throughout the body, but it is typically most severe in the muscles of the face; neck; trunk; and other muscles close to the center of the body (proximal muscles), such as those of the upper arms and legs. This weakness can worsen over time. Affected individuals may have feeding and swallowing difficulties, foot deformities, abnormal curvature of the spine (scoliosis), and joint deformities (contractures). Most people with nemaline myopathy are able to walk, although some affected children may begin walking later than usual. As the condition progresses, some people may require wheelchair assistance. In severe cases, the muscles used for breathing are affected and life-threatening breathing difficulties can occur.

CHST3-related skeletal dysplasia is characterized by short stature of prenatal onset, joint dislocations (knees, hips, radial heads), clubfeet, and limitation of range of motion that can involve all large joints. Kyphosis and occasionally scoliosis with slight shortening of the trunk develop in childhood. Minor heart valve dysplasia has been described in several persons. Intellect and vision are normal.

Larsen-like osseous dysplasia-short stature syndrome is a rare primary bone dysplasia characterized by a Larsen-like phenotype including multiple, congenital, large joint dislocations, craniofacial abnormalities (i.e. macrocephaly, flat occiput, prominent forehead, hypertelorism, low-set, malformed ears, flat nose, cleft palate), spinal abnormalities, cylindrical fingers, and talipes equinovarus, as well as growth retardation (resulting in short stature) and delayed bone age. Other reported clinical manifestations include severe developmental delay, hypotonia, clinodactyly, congenital heart defect and renal dysplasia.

An extremely rare malformation syndrome characterized by the association of partial distal aphalangia with syndactyly, duplication of metatarsal IV, microcephaly, and mild intellectual disability.

RAB18 deficiency is the molecular deficit underlying both Warburg micro syndrome (characterized by eye, nervous system, and endocrine abnormalities) and Martsolf syndrome (characterized by similar – but milder – findings). To date Warburg micro syndrome comprises >96% of reported individuals with genetically defined RAB18 deficiency. The hallmark ophthalmologic findings are bilateral congenital cataracts, usually accompanied by microphthalmia, microcornea (diameter <10), and small atonic pupils. Poor vision despite early cataract surgery likely results from progressive optic atrophy and cortical visual impairment. Individuals with Warburg micro syndrome have severe to profound intellectual disability (ID); those with Martsolf syndrome have mild to moderate ID. Some individuals with RAB18 deficiency also have epilepsy. In Warburg micro syndrome, a progressive ascending spastic paraplegia typically begins with spastic diplegia and contractures during the first year, followed by upper-limb involvement leading to spastic quadriplegia after about age five years, often eventually causing breathing difficulties. In Martsolf syndrome infantile hypotonia is followed primarily by slowly progressive lower-limb spasticity. Hypogonadism – when present – manifests in both syndromes, in males as micropenis and/or cryptorchidism and in females as hypoplastic labia minora, clitoral hypoplasia, and small introitus.

Ichthyosis-cheek-eyebrow syndrome is characterized by ichthyosis, prominent full cheeks and sparse lateral eyebrows. It has been described in several individuals from four generations of one family. Transmission is autosomal dominant.

King-Denborough syndrome (KDS) is an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by the triad of congenital myopathy, dysmorphic features, and susceptibility to malignant hyperthermia (summary by Dowling et al., 2011).

Spondyloenchondrodysplasia with immune dysregulation (SPENCDI) is an immunoosseous dysplasia combining the typical metaphyseal and vertebral bone lesions of spondyloenchondrodysplasia (SPENCD) with immune dysfunction and neurologic involvement. The skeletal dysplasia is characterized by radiolucent and irregular spondylar and metaphyseal lesions that represent islands of chondroid tissue within bone. The vertebral bodies show dorsally accentuated platyspondyly with disturbance of ossification. Clinical abnormalities such as short stature, rhizomelic micromelia, increased lumbar lordosis, barrel chest, facial anomalies, and clumsy movements may be present (Menger et al., 1989). Central nervous system involvement includes spasticity, mental retardation, and cerebral calcifications, and immune dysregulation ranges from autoimmunity to immunodeficiency. Neurologic and autoimmune manifestations have been observed in different combinations within a single family, suggesting that this disorder may be defined by specific radiographic features but has remarkably pleiotropic manifestations (Renella et al., 2006). Briggs et al. (2016) also noted variability in skeletal, neurologic, and immune phenotypes, which was sometimes marked between members of the same family. Classification of the Enchondromatoses In their classification of the enchondromatoses, Spranger et al. (1978) called Ollier disease and Maffucci syndrome types I and II enchondromatosis, respectively; metachondromatosis (156250), type III; and spondyloenchondrodysplasia (SPENCD), also called spondyloenchondromatosis, type IV; enchondromatosis with irregular vertebral lesions, type V; and generalized enchondromatosis, type VI. Halal and Azouz (1991) added 3 tentative categories to the 6 in the classification of Spranger et al. (1978). Pansuriya et al. (2010) suggested a new classification of enchondromatosis (multiple enchondromas).

A severe early-onset form of axonal Charcot-Marie-Tooth peripheral sensorimotor polyneuropathy. Onset occurs in the neonatal period or early infancy with a clinical picture including hypotonia, scoliosis, a hoarse voice, vocal cord paralysis and respiratory insufficiency. However, nerve conduction velocities and pathological findings from sural nerve biopsies are indicative of a predominantly axonal neuropathy with some demyelinating features. Caused by mutations in the GDAP1 gene (8q13.3), encoding a protein required for mitochondrial fission.

The X-linked otopalatodigital (X-OPD) spectrum disorders, characterized primarily by skeletal dysplasia, include the following: Otopalatodigital syndrome type 1 (OPD1). Otopalatodigital syndrome type 2 (OPD2). Frontometaphyseal dysplasia type 1 (FMD1). Melnick-Needles syndrome (MNS). Terminal osseous dysplasia with pigmentary skin defects (TODPD). In OPD1, most manifestations are present at birth; females can present with severity similar to affected males, although some have only mild manifestations. In OPD2, females are less severely affected than related affected males. Most males with OPD2 die during the first year of life, usually from thoracic hypoplasia resulting in pulmonary insufficiency. Males who live beyond the first year of life are usually developmentally delayed and require respiratory support and assistance with feeding. In FMD1, females are less severely affected than related affected males. Males do not experience a progressive skeletal dysplasia but may have joint contractures and hand and foot malformations. Progressive scoliosis is observed in both affected males and females. In MNS, wide phenotypic variability is observed; some individuals are diagnosed in adulthood, while others require respiratory support and have reduced longevity. MNS in males results in perinatal lethality in all recorded cases. TODPD, seen only in females, is characterized by a skeletal dysplasia that is most prominent in the digits, pigmentary defects of the skin, and recurrent digital fibromata.

Alpha-thalassemia X-linked intellectual disability (ATR-X) syndrome is characterized by distinctive craniofacial features, genital anomalies, hypotonia, and mild-to-profound developmental delay / intellectual disability (DD/ID). Craniofacial abnormalities include small head circumference, telecanthus or widely spaced eyes, short triangular nose, tented upper lip, and thick or everted lower lip with coarsening of the facial features over time. While all affected individuals have a normal 46,XY karyotype, genital anomalies comprise a range from hypospadias and undescended testicles, to severe hypospadias and ambiguous genitalia, to normal-appearing female external genitalia. Alpha-thalassemia, observed in about 75% of affected individuals, is mild and typically does not require treatment. Osteosarcoma has been reported in a few males with germline pathogenic variants.

Uruguay faciocardiomusculoskeletal syndrome (FCMSU) is an X-linked disorder in which affected males have a distinctive facial appearance, muscular hypertrophy, and cardiac ventricular hypertrophy leading to premature death. Additional features include large, broad, and deformed hands and feet, congenital hip dislocation, and scoliosis (summary by Xue et al., 2016).

X-linked spondyloepimetaphyseal dysplasia with hypomyelinating leukodystrophy (SEMDHL) is an X-linked recessive developmental disorder characterized by slowly progressive skeletal and neurologic abnormalities, including short stature, large and deformed joints, significant motor impairment, visual defects, and sometimes cognitive deficits. Affected individuals typically have normal early development in the first year or so of life, followed by development regression and the development of symptoms. Brain imaging shows white matter abnormalities consistent with hypomyelinating leukodystrophy (summary by Miyake et al., 2017).

Whistling face syndrome is characterized by an atypical facial appearance with anomalies of the hands and feet. Most cases show autosomal dominant inheritance: see distal arthrogryposis 2A (DA2A; 193700). There are rare reports of presumably autosomal recessive inheritance (summary by Altunhan et al., 2010).

Cold-induced sweating syndrome (CISS) and its infantile presentation, Crisponi syndrome(CS) is characterized by dysmorphic features (distinctive facies, lower facial weakness, flexion deformity at the elbows, camptodactyly with fisted hands, misshapen feet, and overriding toes); intermittent contracture of facial and oropharyngeal muscles when crying or being handled with puckering of lips and drooling of foamy saliva often associated with laryngospasm and respiratory distress; excessive startling and opisthotonus-like posturing with unexpected tactile or auditory stimuli; poor suck reflex and severely impaired swallowing; and a scaly erythematous rash. During the first decade of life, children with CISS/CS develop profuse sweating of the face, arms, and chest with ambient temperatures below 18º to 22º C, and with other stimuli including nervousness or ingestion of sweets. Affected individuals sweat very little in hot environments and may feel overheated. Progressive thoracolumbar kyphoscoliosis occurs, requiring intervention in the second decade.

Hypomyelinating leukodystrophy-3 (HLD3) is an autosomal recessive severe neurologic disorder characterized by early infantile onset of global developmental delay, lack of development, lack of speech acquisition, and peripheral spasticity associated with decreased myelination in the central nervous system (summary by Feinstein et al., 2010). The disorder is phenotypically similar to X-linked Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease (PMD; 312080), which is caused by mutation in the PLP1 gene (300401). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of HLD, see 312080.

An atypical variant of progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), a rare late-onset neurodegenerative disease, by prominent early parkinsonism (tremor, limb bradykinesia, axial and limb rigidity) rather than falls and cognitive change. Over the years, patients ultimately develop clinical features characteristic of classical PSP. Neuropathological characteristics includes tau pathology and neuronal loss in specific brain areas, especially in the subthalamic nucleus and substantia nigra. The tau pathology is less severe than in classical PSP.

Multicentric osteolysis nodulosis and arthropathy (MONA) is a skeletal dysplasia characterized by progressive osteolysis (particularly of the carpal and tarsal bones), osteoporosis, subcutaneous nodules on the palms and soles, and progressive arthropathy (joint contractures, pain, swelling, and stiffness). Other manifestations include coarse facies, pigmented skin lesions, cardiac defects, and corneal opacities. Onset is usually between ages six months and six years (range: birth to 11 years).

STAC3 disorder is characterized by congenital myopathy, musculoskeletal involvement of the trunk and extremities, feeding difficulties, and delayed motor milestones. Most affected individuals have weakness with myopathic facies, scoliosis, kyphosis or kyphoscoliosis, and contractures. Other common findings are ptosis, abnormalities of the palate (including cleft palate), and short stature. Risk for malignant hyperthermia susceptibility and restrictive lung disease are increased. Intellect is typically normal. Originally described in individuals from the Lumbee Native American tribe (an admixture of Cheraw Indian, English, and African American ancestry) in the state of North Carolina and reported as Native American myopathy, STAC3 disorder has now been identified in numerous other populations worldwide.

Cerebrooculofacioskeletal syndrome-4 (COFS4) is a severe autosomal recessive disorder characterized by growth retardation, dysmorphic facial features, arthrogryposis, and neurologic abnormalities. Cellular studies show a defect in both transcription-coupled and global genome nucleotide excision repair (TC-NER and GG-NER) (summary by Jaspers et al., 2007 and Kashiyama et al., 2013). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of cerebrooculofacioskeletal syndrome, see 214150.

Any COFS syndrome in which the cause of the disease is a mutation in the ERCC2 gene.

Nemaline myopathy-7 is an autosomal recessive congenital myopathy characterized by very early onset of hypotonia and delayed motor development. Affected individuals have difficulty walking and running due to proximal muscle weakness. The disorder is slowly progressive, and patients may lose independent ambulation. Muscle biopsy shows nemaline rods and may later show minicores, abnormal protein aggregates, and dystrophic changes (summary by Ockeloen et al., 2012). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of nemaline myopathy, see 161800.

Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease constitutes a clinically and genetically heterogeneous group of hereditary motor and sensory neuropathies. On the basis of electrophysiologic criteria, CMT is divided into 2 major types: type 1, the demyelinating form, characterized by a motor median nerve conduction velocity less than 38 m/s (see CMT1B; 118200); and type 2, the axonal form, with a normal or slightly reduced nerve conduction velocity. For a phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of axonal CMT type 2, see CMT2A1 (118210).

The primary characteristics of the Frank-ter Haar syndrome (FTHS) are brachycephaly, wide fontanels, prominent forehead, hypertelorism, prominent eyes, macrocornea with or without glaucoma, full cheeks, small chin, bowing of the long bones, and flexion deformity of the fingers. Protruding, simple ears and prominent coccyx are also regarded as important diagnostic signs (summary by Maas et al., 2004). Borrone syndrome was described as a severe progressive multisystem disorder with features overlapping those of FTHS, including thick skin, acne conglobata, osteolysis, gingival hypertrophy, brachydactyly, camptodactyly, and mitral valve prolapse. Although it was initially thought to be a distinct phenotype, mutations in the FTHS-associated gene SH3PXD2B have been identified in patients diagnosed with Borrone syndrome. The earlier differential description was attributed to phenotypic variability as well as to differences in the ages at which patients were examined (Wilson et al., 2014).

A multiple congenital anomalies syndrome described in two sisters and with the presence of hydrocephalus (onset in infancy), tall stature, joint laxity, and thoracolumbar kyphosis. There have been no further descriptions in the literature since 1989.

Autosomal recessive Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 4B2 (CMT4B2) is a demyelinating hereditary motor and sensory neuropathy characterized by abnormal folding of myelin sheaths. CMT4B1 (601382) is a clinically similar disorder caused by mutation in the MTMR2 gene (603557) on 11q22. For a phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal recessive demyelinating CMT, see CMT4A (214400).

CTDP1-related congenital cataracts, facial dysmorphism, and neuropathy (CTDP1-CCFDN) is characterized by abnormalities of the eye (bilateral congenital cataracts, microcornea, microphthalmia, micropupils), mildly dysmorphic facial features apparent in late childhood, and a hypo-/demyelinating, symmetric, distal peripheral neuropathy. The neuropathy is predominantly motor at the onset and results in delays in early motor development, progressing to severe disability by the third decade of life. Secondary foot deformities and scoliosis are common. Sensory neuropathy develops after age ten years. Most affected individuals have a mild nonprogressive intellectual deficit and cerebellar involvement including ataxia, nystagmus, intention tremor, and dysmetria. All have short stature and most have subnormal weight. Adults have hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. Parainfectious rhabdomyolysis (profound muscle weakness, myoglobinuria, and excessively elevated serum concentration of creatine kinase usually following a viral infection) is a potentially life-threatening complication. To date all affected individuals and carriers identified have been from the Romani population.

Rhizomelic chondrodysplasia punctata type 1 (RCDP1), a peroxisome biogenesis disorder (PBD) has a classic (severe) form and a nonclassic (mild) form. Classic (severe) RCDP1 is characterized by proximal shortening of the humerus (rhizomelia) and to a lesser degree the femur, punctate calcifications in cartilage with epiphyseal and metaphyseal abnormalities (chondrodysplasia punctata, or CDP), coronal clefts of the vertebral bodies, and cataracts that are usually present at birth or appear in the first few months of life. Birth weight, length, and head circumference are often at the lower range of normal; postnatal growth deficiency is profound. Intellectual disability is severe, and the majority of children develop seizures. Most affected children do not survive the first decade of life; a proportion die in the neonatal period. Nonclassic (mild) RCDP1 is characterized by congenital or childhood cataracts, CDP or infrequently, chondrodysplasia manifesting only as mild epiphyseal changes, variable rhizomelia, and milder intellectual disability and growth restriction than classic RCDP1.

GDAP1-related hereditary motor and sensory neuropathy (GDAP1-HMSN) is a peripheral neuropathy (also known as a subtype of Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease) that typically affects the lower extremities earlier and more severely than the upper extremities. As the neuropathy progresses, the distal upper extremities also become severely affected. Proximal muscles can also become weak. Age at onset ranges from infancy to early childhood. In most cases, disease progression causes disabilities within the first or second decade of life. At the end of the second decade, most individuals are wheelchair bound. Disease progression varies considerably even within the same family. The neuropathy can be either of the demyelinating type with reduced nerve conduction velocities or the axonal type with normal nerve conduction velocities. Vocal cord paresis is common. Intelligence is normal. Life expectancy is usually normal, but on occasion may be reduced because of secondary complications.

A very rare multiple congenital anomalies syndrome with characteristics of limb deficiencies and renal anomalies that include split hand-split foot malformation, renal agenesis, polycystic kidneys, uterine anomalies and severe mandibular hypoplasia.

Campomelic dysplasia (CD) is a skeletal dysplasia characterized by distinctive facies, Pierre Robin sequence with cleft palate, shortening and bowing of long bones, and clubfeet. Other findings include laryngotracheomalacia with respiratory compromise and ambiguous genitalia or normal female external genitalia in most individuals with a 46,XY karyotype. Many affected infants die in the neonatal period; additional findings identified in long-term survivors include short stature, cervical spine instability with cord compression, progressive scoliosis, and hearing impairment.

Primary basilar impression of the skull is a developmental defect of the cranium in which there is invagination of the foramen magnum upward into the posterior cranial fossa. Basilar impression is often associated with other malformations of the notochord and craniovertebral junction, such as occipitalization of the atlas, Klippel-Feil anomaly (see 118100), Chiari type I malformation (118420), and syringomyelia (186700) (Paradis and Sax, 1972; Bhangoo and Crockard, 1999). Secondary basilar impression occurs as a result of generalized skeletal diseases, including hyperparathyroidism (see 145000), Paget disease (see 167250), and osteogenesis imperfecta (see, e.g., 166200). Platybasia refers to a skull base with an abnormally obtuse angle between the planes of the clivus and the anterior fossa. Platybasia may occur in basilar impression, but it is not of medical significance on its own (Bhangoo and Crockard, 1999). Historically, basilar impression was defined radiologically by numerous parameters, including the lines defined by Chamberlain (1939), McGregor (1948), and Fischgold and Metzger (1952), and the angle defined by Bull et al. (1955).

Spondylometaphyseal dysplasia, Schmidt type has characteristics of short stature, myopia, small pelvis, progressive kyphoscoliosis, wrist deformity, severe genu valgum, short long bones, and severe metaphyseal dysplasia with moderate spinal changes and minimal changes in the hands and feet. This condition has been reported in five members of an Algerian family and one Polish boy. Autosomal dominant inheritance has been suggested, but the causative gene has not yet been identified.

Autosomal domiant spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia tarda (autosomal dominant SEDT) is an inherited condition that affects bone growth. Signs and symptoms are generally physically apparent by puberty; however, abnormalities may be seen on X-ray at an earlier age. Affected people may have skeletal abnormalities, short stature (with a short neck and trunk, specifically), scoliosis, kyphosis, lumbar hyperlordosis (exaggerated curvature of the lower back), and early-onset progressive osteoarthritis of the hips and knees. Some cases of autosomal dominant SEDT may be caused by changes (mutations) in the COL2A1 gene. As the name suggests, the condition is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner. Treatment is based on the signs and symptoms present in each person and may include surgery and pain management strategies.

This syndrome has characteristics of severe intellectual deficit, patella luxations, acromicria, hypogonadism, facial dysmorphism (including midface hypoplasia and premature frontotemporal balding). It has been described in three unrelated males.

Mevalonic aciduria (MEVA), the first recognized defect in the biosynthesis of cholesterol and isoprenoids, is a consequence of a deficiency of mevalonate kinase (ATP:mevalonate 5-phosphotransferase; EC 2.7.1.36). Mevalonic acid accumulates because of failure of conversion to 5-phosphomevalonic acid, which is catalyzed by mevalonate kinase. Mevalonic acid is synthesized from 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA, a reaction catalyzed by HMG-CoA reductase (142910). Mevalonic aciduria is characterized by dysmorphology, psychomotor retardation, progressive cerebellar ataxia, and recurrent febrile crises, usually manifesting in early infancy, accompanied by hepatosplenomegaly, lymphadenopathy, arthralgia, and skin rash. The febrile crises are similar to those observed in hyperimmunoglobulinemia D and to periodic fever syndrome (HIDS; 260920), which is also caused by mutation in the MVK gene (summary by Prietsch et al., 2003).

Chromosome 2p16.1-p15 deletion syndrome is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by delayed psychomotor development, intellectual disability, and variable but distinctive dysmorphic features, including microcephaly, bitemporal narrowing, smooth and long philtrum, hypertelorism, downslanting palpebral fissures, broad nasal root, thin upper lip, and high palate. Many patients have behavioral disorders, including autistic features, as well as structural brain abnormalities, such as pachygyria or hypoplastic corpus callosum. Those with deletions including the BCL11A gene (606557) also have persistence of fetal hemoglobin (HbF), which is asymptomatic and does not affected hematologic parameters or susceptibility to infection (summary by Funnell et al., 2015). Point mutation in the BCL11A gene causes intellectual developmental disorder with persistence of fetal hemoglobin (617101), which shows overlapping features. See also fetal hemoglobin quantitative trait locus-5 (HBFQTL5; 142335).

Ehlers-Danlos syndrome spondylodysplastic type 3 (EDSSPD3) is characterized by short stature, hyperelastic skin and hypermobile joints, protuberant eyes with bluish sclerae, finely wrinkled palms, and characteristic radiologic features (Giunta et al., 2008). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of the spondylodysplastic type of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, see 130070.

Alopecia, neurologic defects, and endocrinopathy syndrome (ANES) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by alopecia with skin involvement including multiple facial nevi and flexural hyperpigmentation; moderately to severely impaired intellectual development; progressive motor decline; and endocrine deficiency (summary by Spiegel et al., 2010).

This form of brachyolmia, here designated brachyolmia type 4, is characterized by short-trunk stature with normal intelligence and facies. The radiographic features include rectangular vertebral bodies with irregular endplates and narrow intervertebral discs, precocious calcification of rib cartilages, short femoral neck, mildly shortened metacarpals, and mild epiphyseal and metaphyseal changes of the tubular bones (summary by Miyake et al., 2012).

Spondylo-megaepiphyseal-metaphyseal dysplasia is a rare autosomal recessive skeletal dysplasia characterized by disproportionate short stature with a short and stiff neck and trunk; relatively long limbs that may show flexion contractures of the distal joints; delayed and impaired ossification of the vertebral bodies and the presence of large epiphyseal ossification centers and wide growth plates in the long tubular bones; and numerous pseudoepiphyses of the short tubular bones in hands and feet (summary by Hellemans et al., 2009).

An extremely rare, sporadic form of Orofaciodigital syndrome with only a few reported cases and characteristics of facial (blepharophimosis, bulbous nasal tip, broad nasal bridge, downslanting palpebral fissures and low set ears) and skeletal (post-axial polydactyly and fusion of vertebrae) malformations along with severe intellectual disability, deafness and congenital heart defects.

A rare genetic myotonic syndrome characterised by childhood onset of progressive and severe myotonia (with generalised muscular hypertrophy and progressive impairment of gait) short stature, skeletal abnormalities (including pectus carinatum, short, wedge-shaped thoracolumbar vertebrae, kyphoscoliosis, genu valgum, irregular femoral epiphyses) and mild to moderate intellectual deficiency. Facial dysmorphism and joint limitation are not associated. There have been no further descriptions in the literature since 1984.

An extremely rare form of carbohydrate deficient glycoprotein syndrome with, in the few cases reported to date, variable signs including microcephaly, growth retardation, psychomotor retardation and facial dysmorphism.

Osteogenesis imperfecta (OI) comprises a group of connective tissue disorders characterized by bone fragility and low bone mass. The disorder is clinically and genetically heterogeneous. OI type XI is an autosomal recessive form of OI (summary by Alanay et al., 2010).

The autosomal dominant TRPV4 disorders (previously considered to be clinically distinct phenotypes before their molecular basis was discovered) are now grouped into neuromuscular disorders and skeletal dysplasias; however, the overlap within each group is considerable. Affected individuals typically have either neuromuscular or skeletal manifestations alone, and in only rare instances an overlap syndrome has been reported. The three autosomal dominant neuromuscular disorders (mildest to most severe) are: Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2C. Scapuloperoneal spinal muscular atrophy. Congenital distal spinal muscular atrophy. The autosomal dominant neuromuscular disorders are characterized by a congenital-onset, static, or later-onset progressive peripheral neuropathy with variable combinations of laryngeal dysfunction (i.e., vocal fold paresis), respiratory dysfunction, and joint contractures. The six autosomal dominant skeletal dysplasias (mildest to most severe) are: Familial digital arthropathy-brachydactyly. Autosomal dominant brachyolmia. Spondylometaphyseal dysplasia, Kozlowski type. Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia, Maroteaux type. Parastremmatic dysplasia. Metatropic dysplasia. The skeletal dysplasia is characterized by brachydactyly (in all 6); the five that are more severe have short stature that varies from mild to severe with progressive spinal deformity and involvement of the long bones and pelvis. In the mildest of the autosomal dominant TRPV4 disorders life span is normal; in the most severe it is shortened. Bilateral progressive sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) can occur with both autosomal dominant neuromuscular disorders and skeletal dysplasias.

RAB18 deficiency is the molecular deficit underlying both Warburg micro syndrome (characterized by eye, nervous system, and endocrine abnormalities) and Martsolf syndrome (characterized by similar – but milder – findings). To date Warburg micro syndrome comprises >96% of reported individuals with genetically defined RAB18 deficiency. The hallmark ophthalmologic findings are bilateral congenital cataracts, usually accompanied by microphthalmia, microcornea (diameter <10), and small atonic pupils. Poor vision despite early cataract surgery likely results from progressive optic atrophy and cortical visual impairment. Individuals with Warburg micro syndrome have severe to profound intellectual disability (ID); those with Martsolf syndrome have mild to moderate ID. Some individuals with RAB18 deficiency also have epilepsy. In Warburg micro syndrome, a progressive ascending spastic paraplegia typically begins with spastic diplegia and contractures during the first year, followed by upper-limb involvement leading to spastic quadriplegia after about age five years, often eventually causing breathing difficulties. In Martsolf syndrome infantile hypotonia is followed primarily by slowly progressive lower-limb spasticity. Hypogonadism – when present – manifests in both syndromes, in males as micropenis and/or cryptorchidism and in females as hypoplastic labia minora, clitoral hypoplasia, and small introitus.

FKBP14 kyphoscoliotic Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (FKBP14-kEDS) is characterized by congenital muscle hypotonia and weakness (typically improving during childhood), progressive scoliosis, joint hypermobility, hyperelastic skin, gross motor developmental delay, myopathy, and hearing impairment. Most affected children achieve independent walking between ages two and four years. A decline of motor function in adulthood may be seen, but affected individuals are likely to be able to participate in activities of daily living in adulthood and maintain independent walking. Occasional features underlying systemic connective tissue involvement include aortic rupture and arterial dissection, subdural hygroma, insufficiency of cardiac valves, bluish sclerae, bladder diverticula, inguinal or umbilical herniae, and premature rupture of membranes during pregnancy. Rarer findings may include bifid uvula with submucous or frank cleft palate, speech/language delay without true cognitive impairment, and rectal prolapse.

X-linked intellectual disability-cardiomegaly-congestive heart failure syndrome is a rare X-linked syndromic intellectual disability disorder characterized by profound intellectual disability, global developmental delay with absent speech, seizures, large joint contractures, abnormal position of thumbs and middle-age onset of cardiomegaly and atrioventricular valve abnormalities, resulting in subsequent congestive heart failure. Additional features include variable facial dysmorphism (notably large ears with overfolded helix) and large testes.

Brown-Vialetto-Van Laere syndrome-2 (BVVLS2) is an autosomal recessive progressive neurologic disorder characterized by early childhood onset of sensorineural deafness, bulbar dysfunction, and severe diffuse muscle weakness and wasting of the upper and lower limbs and axial muscles, resulting in respiratory insufficiency. Some patients may lose independent ambulation. Because it results from a defect in riboflavin metabolism, some patients may benefit from high-dose riboflavin supplementation (summary by Johnson et al., 2012; Foley et al., 2014). For discussion of genetic heterogeneity of Brown-Vialetto-Van Laere syndrome, see BVVLS1 (211530).

CDG2K is an autosomal recessive disorder with a variable phenotype. Affected individuals show psychomotor retardation and growth retardation, and most have short stature. Other features include dysmorphism, hypotonia, eye abnormalities, acquired microcephaly, hepatomegaly, and skeletal dysplasia. Serum transferrin analysis shows a CDG type II pattern (summary by Foulquier et al., 2012). For a general discussion of CDGs, see CDG1A (212065) and CDG2A (212066).

Classic Joubert syndrome (JS) is characterized by three primary findings: A distinctive cerebellar and brain stem malformation called the molar tooth sign (MTS). Hypotonia. Developmental delays. Often these findings are accompanied by episodic tachypnea or apnea and/or atypical eye movements. In general, the breathing abnormalities improve with age, truncal ataxia develops over time, and acquisition of gross motor milestones is delayed. Cognitive abilities are variable, ranging from severe intellectual disability to normal. Additional findings can include retinal dystrophy, renal disease, ocular colobomas, occipital encephalocele, hepatic fibrosis, polydactyly, oral hamartomas, and endocrine abnormalities. Both intra- and interfamilial variation are seen.

Osteogenesis imperfecta (OI) is a connective tissue disorder characterized by bone fragility and low bone mass. Due to considerable phenotypic variability, Sillence et al. (1979) developed a classification of OI subtypes based on clinical features and disease severity: OI type I, with blue sclerae (166200); perinatal lethal OI type II, also known as congenital OI (166210); OI type III, a progressively deforming form with normal sclerae (259420); and OI type IV, with normal sclerae (166220). Most cases of OI are autosomal dominant with mutations in 1 of the 2 genes that code for type I collagen alpha chains, COL1A1 (120150) and COL1A2 (120160). Martinez-Glez et al. (2012) described osteogenesis imperfecta type XIII, an autosomal recessive form of the disorder characterized by normal teeth, faint blue sclerae, severe growth deficiency, borderline osteoporosis, and an average of 10 to 15 fractures a year affecting both upper and lower limbs and with severe bone deformity.

X-linked colobomatous microphthalmia-microcephaly-intellectual disability-short stature syndrome is a rare syndromic microphthalmia disorder characterized by microphthalmia with coloboma (which may involve the iris, cilary body, choroid, retina and/or optic nerve), microcephaly, short stature and intellectual disability. Other eye abnormalities such as pendular nystagmus, esotropia and ptosis may also be present. Additional associated abnormalities include kyphoscoliosis, anteverted pinnae with minimal convolutions, diastema of the incisors and congenital pes varus.

The features of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome spondylodysplastic type 2 (EDSSPD2) include an aged appearance, developmental delay, short stature, craniofacial disproportion, generalized osteopenia, defective wound healing, hypermobile joints, hypotonic muscles, and loose but elastic skin (Okajima et al., 1999). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of the spondylodysplastic type of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, see 130070.

Severe intellectual disability-short stature-behavioral abnormalities-facial dysmorphism syndrome is a rare, genetic, syndromic intellectual disability disorder characterized by severe intellectual disability with limited or absent speech and language, short stature, acquired microcephaly, kyphoscoliosis or scoliosis, and behavioral disturbances that include hyperactivity, stereotypy and aggressiveness. Facial dysmorphism, that typically includes sloping forehead, mild synophrys, deep-set eyes, strabismus, anteverted large ears, prominent nose and dental malposition, is also characteristic.

Loeys-Dietz syndrome (LDS) is characterized by vascular findings (cerebral, thoracic, and abdominal arterial aneurysms and/or dissections), skeletal manifestations (pectus excavatum or pectus carinatum, scoliosis, joint laxity, arachnodactyly, talipes equinovarus, cervical spine malformation and/or instability), craniofacial features (widely spaced eyes, strabismus, bifid uvula / cleft palate, and craniosynostosis that can involve any sutures), and cutaneous findings (velvety and translucent skin, easy bruising, and dystrophic scars). Individuals with LDS are predisposed to widespread and aggressive arterial aneurysms and pregnancy-related complications including uterine rupture and death. Individuals with LDS can show a strong predisposition for allergic/inflammatory disease including asthma, eczema, and reactions to food or environmental allergens. There is also an increased incidence of gastrointestinal inflammation including eosinophilic esophagitis and gastritis or inflammatory bowel disease. Wide variation in the distribution and severity of clinical features can be seen in individuals with LDS, even among affected individuals within a family who have the same pathogenic variant.

Seckel syndrome-8 (SCKL8) is characterized by severe microcephaly and markedly reduced height. Some patients have bird-like facies and exhibit developmental delays (Shaheen et al., 2014; Tarnauskaite et al., 2019). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of Seckel syndrome, see SCKL1 (210600).

Any spondyloepimetaphyseal dysplasia with joint laxity in which the cause of the disease is a mutation in the B3GALT6 gene.

Microcephaly, short stature, and impaired glucose metabolism-2 (MSSGM2) is an autosomal recessive syndrome characterized by microcephaly associated with impaired intellectual development, and short stature. Patients develop diabetes in the second or third decade of life, and hypothyroidism and delayed puberty have also been reported (Abdulkarim et al., 2015; Kernohan et al., 2015). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of microcephaly, short stature, and impaired glucose metabolism, see MSSGM1 (616033).

Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 4K (CMT4K) is an autosomal recessive demyelinating peripheral neuropathy characterized by onset in the first decade of distal muscle weakness and atrophy associated with impaired distal sensation. Both upper and lower limbs are affected. Affected individuals may also have nystagmus and late-onset cerebellar ataxia. Laboratory studies show increased serum lactate and isolated mitochondrial complex IV deficiency (summary by Echaniz-Laguna et al., 2013). For a phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal recessive demyelinating Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, see CMT4A (214400).

Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia with accumulation of glycoprotein in chondrocytes has been designated the 'Stanescu type.' Clinical hallmarks include progressive joint contracture with premature degenerative joint disease, particularly in the knee, hip, and finger joints. Interphalangeal joints of the hands are swollen due to osseous distention of the metaphyseal ends of the phalanges. Affected individuals may be relatively tall despite the presence of a short trunk. Radiologically, there is generalized platyspondyly with mild modification of the endplates, hypoplastic pelvis, epiphyseal flattening with metaphyseal splaying of the long bones, and enlarged phalangeal epimetaphyses of the hands. In addition, the proximal femora are characteristically broad and elongated with striking coxa valga (summary by Nishimura et al., 1998).

Osteogenesis imperfecta (OI) is a group of genetic disorders that mainly affect the bones. The term "osteogenesis imperfecta" means imperfect bone formation. People with this condition have bones that break (fracture) easily, often from mild trauma or with no apparent cause. Multiple fractures are common, and in severe cases, can occur even before birth. Milder cases may involve only a few fractures over a person's lifetime.\n\nThere are at least 19 recognized forms of osteogenesis imperfecta, designated type I through type XIX. Several types are distinguished by their signs and symptoms, although their characteristic features overlap. Increasingly, genetic causes are used to define rarer forms of osteogenesis imperfecta. Type I (also known as classic non-deforming osteogenesis imperfecta with blue sclerae) is the mildest form of osteogenesis imperfecta. Type II (also known as perinatally lethal osteogenesis imperfecta) is the most severe. Other types of this condition, including types III (progressively deforming osteogenesis imperfecta) and IV (common variable osteogenesis imperfecta with normal sclerae), have signs and symptoms that fall somewhere between these two extremes.\n\nThe milder forms of osteogenesis imperfecta, including type I, are characterized by bone fractures during childhood and adolescence that often result from minor trauma, such as falling while learning to walk. Fractures occur less frequently in adulthood. People with mild forms of the condition typically have a blue or grey tint to the part of the eye that is usually white (the sclera), and about half develop hearing loss in adulthood. Unlike more severely affected individuals, people with type I are usually of normal or near normal height.\n\nOther types of osteogenesis imperfecta are more severe, causing frequent bone fractures that are present at birth and result from little or no trauma. Additional features of these types can include blue sclerae of the eyes, short stature, curvature of the spine (scoliosis), joint deformities (contractures), hearing loss, respiratory problems, and a disorder of tooth development called dentinogenesis imperfecta. Mobility can be reduced in affected individuals, and some may use a walker or wheelchair. The most severe forms of osteogenesis imperfecta, particularly type II, can include an abnormally small, fragile rib cage and underdeveloped lungs. Infants with these abnormalities may have life-threatening problems with breathing and can die shortly after birth.

Ullrich congenital muscular dystrophy-2 (UCMD2) is a severe autosomal recessive disorder characterized by joint hypermobility, proximal contractures, and muscle weakness precluding ambulation (summary by Zou et al., 2014). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of Ullrich congenital muscular dystrophy, see UCMD1A (254090).

Autosomal dominant Robinow syndrome (ADRS) is characterized by skeletal findings (short stature, mesomelic limb shortening predominantly of the upper limbs, and brachydactyly), genital abnormalities (in males: micropenis / webbed penis, hypoplastic scrotum, cryptorchidism; in females: hypoplastic clitoris and labia majora), dysmorphic facial features (widely spaced and prominent eyes, frontal bossing, anteverted nares, midface retrusion), dental abnormalities (including malocclusion, crowding, hypodontia, late eruption of permanent teeth), bilobed tongue, and occasional prenatal macrocephaly that persists postnatally. Less common findings include renal anomalies, radial head dislocation, vertebral abnormalities such as hemivertebrae and scoliosis, nail dysplasia, cardiac defects, cleft lip/palate, and (rarely) cognitive delay. When present, cardiac defects are a major cause of morbidity and mortality. A variant of Robinow syndrome, associated with osteosclerosis and caused by a heterozygous pathogenic variant in DVL1, is characterized by normal stature, persistent macrocephaly, increased bone mineral density with skull osteosclerosis, and hearing loss, in addition to the typical features described above.

X-linked syndromic intellectual developmental disorder-34 (MRXS34) is an X-linked recessive neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by delayed psychomotor development, intellectual disability with poor speech, dysmorphic facial features, and mild structural brain abnormalities, including thickening of the corpus callosum (summary by Mircsof et al., 2015).

Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy-41 (DEE41) is a neurologic disorder characterized by the onset of seizures in the first days or weeks of life. Affected infants show severely impaired psychomotor development with hypotonia, spasticity, lack of speech, poor visual fixation, feeding difficulties sometimes necessitating tube feeding, poor overall growth and microcephaly, and contractures. Brain imaging may show delayed myelination, thin corpus callosum, and cerebral atrophy (summary by the EPI4K Consortium, 2016). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of DEE, see 308350.

You-Hoover-Fong syndrome (YHFS) is an autosomal recessive disorder with clinical features of global developmental delay, impaired intellectual development, dysmorphic facial features, microcephaly, abnormal movements, and abnormal auditory and visual function (You et al., 2016).

Autosomal recessive cutis laxa type IIC (ARCL2C) is characterized by generalized skin wrinkling with sparse subcutaneous fat and dysmorphic progeroid facial features. Most patients also exhibit severe hypotonia as well as cardiovascular involvement (summary by Van Damme et al., 2017). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal recessive cutis laxa, see ARCL1A (219100).

Autosomal recessive cutis laxa type IID (ARCL2D) is characterized by generalized skin wrinkling with sparse subcutaneous fat and dysmorphic progeroid facial features. Most patients also exhibit severe hypotonia as well as cardiovascular and neurologic involvement (summary by Van Damme et al., 2017). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal recessive cutis laxa, see ARCL1A (219100).

The name HIST1H1E syndrome has been proposed as a mnemonic for the characteristic features of this emerging, recognizable phenotype: hypotonia; intellectual disability with behavioral issues; skeletal; testes (undescended) and thyroid; heart anomalies (most commonly atrial septal defect); and ectodermal issues (including sparse hair, thin nails, and abnormal dentition). In the 47 affected individuals reported to date, predominant findings were intellectual disability (ranging from mild to profound) and behavioral problems (combinations of anxiety/phobias, obsessive behaviors, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and autistic spectrum disorder/traits among others). Skeletal involvement can include scoliosis and decreased bone mineral density. Other findings in some include seizures, craniosynostosis, and hearing loss. Life expectancy does not appear to be reduced in HIST1H1E syndrome.

A rare developmental defect with connective tissue involvement and characteristics of joint hyperextensibility and multiple dislocations of large joints, severe myopia and short stature. Other common features include retinal detachment, iris and chorioretinal coloboma, kyphoscoliosis and other spine deformities, pectus carinatum, talipes equinovarus and progressive hearing loss.

Combined oxidative phosphorylation deficiency-32 is an autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by onset of delayed psychomotor development and developmental regression in infancy. Affected individuals have multiple variable symptoms, including poor or absent speech, inability to walk, and abnormal movements. Brain imaging shows T2-weighted abnormalities in the basal ganglia and brainstem consistent with Leigh syndrome (256000). Patient cells showed decreased activities of mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes, I, III, and IV, as well as impaired mitochondrial translation (summary by Lake et al., 2017). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of combined oxidative phosphorylation deficiency, see COXPD1 (609060).

Coffin-Siris syndrome (CSS) is classically characterized by aplasia or hypoplasia of the distal phalanx or nail of the fifth and additional digits, developmental or cognitive delay of varying degree, distinctive facial features, hypotonia, hirsutism/hypertrichosis, and sparse scalp hair. Congenital anomalies can include malformations of the cardiac, gastrointestinal, genitourinary, and/or central nervous systems. Other findings commonly include feeding difficulties, slow growth, ophthalmologic abnormalities, and hearing impairment.

Schwartz-Jampel syndrome type 1 (SJS1) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder characterized by muscle stiffness (myotonia) and chondrodysplasia. Affected individuals usually present in childhood with permanent muscle stiffness or bone deformities. Common clinical features include mask-like facies (narrow palpebral fissures, blepharospasm, and pursed lips); permanent muscle stiffness with continuous skeletal muscle activity recorded on electromyography; dwarfism; pectus carinatum; kyphoscoliosis; bowing of long bones; and epiphyseal, metaphyseal, and hip dysplasia. The disorder is slowly progressive but does not appear to alter life span (summary by Stum et al., 2006).

Noonan syndrome with multiple lentigines (NSML) is a condition in which the cardinal features consist of lentigines, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, short stature, pectus deformity, and dysmorphic facial features including widely spaced eyes and ptosis. Multiple lentigines present as dispersed flat, black-brown macules, mostly on the face, neck, and upper part of the trunk with sparing of the mucosa. In general, lentigines do not appear until age four to five years but then increase to the thousands by puberty. Some individuals with NSML do not exhibit lentigines. Approximately 85% of affected individuals have heart defects, including hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (typically appearing during infancy and sometimes progressive) and pulmonary valve stenosis. Postnatal growth restriction resulting in short stature occurs in fewer than 50% of affected persons, although most affected individuals have a height that is less than the 25th centile for age. Sensorineural hearing deficits, present in approximately 20% of affected individuals, are poorly characterized. Intellectual disability, typically mild, is observed in approximately 30% of persons with NSML.

Noonan syndrome (NS) is characterized by characteristic facies, short stature, congenital heart defect, and developmental delay of variable degree. Other findings can include broad or webbed neck, unusual chest shape with superior pectus carinatum and inferior pectus excavatum, cryptorchidism, varied coagulation defects, lymphatic dysplasias, and ocular abnormalities. Although birth length is usually normal, final adult height approaches the lower limit of normal. Congenital heart disease occurs in 50%-80% of individuals. Pulmonary valve stenosis, often with dysplasia, is the most common heart defect and is found in 20%-50% of individuals. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, found in 20%-30% of individuals, may be present at birth or develop in infancy or childhood. Other structural defects include atrial and ventricular septal defects, branch pulmonary artery stenosis, and tetralogy of Fallot. Up to one fourth of affected individuals have mild intellectual disability, and language impairments in general are more common in NS than in the general population.

Schimmelpenning-Feuerstein-Mims syndrome, also known as linear sebaceous nevus syndrome, is characterized by sebaceous nevi, often on the face, associated with variable ipsilateral abnormalities of the central nervous system, ocular anomalies, and skeletal defects (summary by Happle, 1991 and Ernst et al., 2007). The linear sebaceous nevi follow the lines of Blaschko (Hornstein and Knickenberg, 1974; Bouwes Bavinck and van de Kamp, 1985). All cases are sporadic. The syndrome is believed to be caused by an autosomal dominant lethal mutation that survives by somatic mosaicism (Gorlin et al., 2001).

El-Hattab-Alkuraya syndrome is characterized by microcephaly (often early onset and progressive); severe-to-profound developmental delay; refractory and early-onset seizures; spastic quadriplegia with axial hypotonia; and growth deficiency with poor weight gain and short stature. Characteristic findings on brain imaging include cerebral atrophy that is disproportionately most prominent in the frontal lobes; ex vacuo ventricular dilatation with notable posterior horn predominance; brain stem volume loss with flattening of the belly of the pons; and symmetric under-opercularization. Neurologic involvement is progressive, with significant morbidity and mortality.

Congenital disorder of glycosylation with defective fucosylation is an autosomal recessive multisystem disorder apparent from birth. Affected infants have poor growth, failure to thrive, hypotonia, skeletal anomalies, and delayed psychomotor development with intellectual disability. Additional highly variable congenital defects may be observed (summary by Ng et al., 2018). Genetic Heterogeneity of Congenital Disorders of Glycosylation with Defective Fucosylation See also CDGF2 (618323), caused by mutation in the FCSK gene (608675) on chromosome 16q22. For an overview of congenital disorders of glycosylation (CDG), see CDG1A (212065) and CDG2A (212066).

Hypomyelinating leukodystrophy-17 (HLD17) is an autosomal recessive neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by poor, if any, development apparent from infancy. Affected individuals never learn to walk or speak, and have early-onset multifocal seizures, spasticity, poor overall growth, and microcephaly (up to -10 SD). Brain imaging shows multiple abnormalities, including cerebral and cerebellar atrophy, thin corpus callosum, abnormal signals in the basal ganglia, and features suggesting hypo- or demyelination. Some patients may die in childhood (summary by Shukla et al., 2018). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of hypomyelinating leukodystrophy, see 312080.

Hyperekplexia-4 is an autosomal recessive severe neurologic disorder apparent at birth. Affected infants have extreme hypertonia and appear stiff and rigid. They have little if any development, poor or absent visual contact, and no spontaneous movement, consistent with an encephalopathy. Some patients have early-onset refractory seizures, and many have inguinal or umbilical hernia. Most patients die in the first months of life due to respiratory failure or other complications (summary by Piard et al., 2018). For a general description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of hyperekplexia, see HKPX1 (149400).

Alpha-thalassemia X-linked intellectual disability (ATR-X) syndrome is characterized by distinctive craniofacial features, genital anomalies, hypotonia, and mild-to-profound developmental delay / intellectual disability (DD/ID). Craniofacial abnormalities include small head circumference, telecanthus or widely spaced eyes, short triangular nose, tented upper lip, and thick or everted lower lip with coarsening of the facial features over time. While all affected individuals have a normal 46,XY karyotype, genital anomalies comprise a range from hypospadias and undescended testicles, to severe hypospadias and ambiguous genitalia, to normal-appearing female external genitalia. Alpha-thalassemia, observed in about 75% of affected individuals, is mild and typically does not require treatment. Osteosarcoma has been reported in a few males with germline pathogenic variants.

Pontocerebellar hypoplasia type 10 is an autosomal recessive neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorder characterized by severely delayed psychomotor development, progressive microcephaly, spasticity, seizures, and brain abnormalities, including brain atrophy and delayed myelination. Some patients have dysmorphic features and an axonal sensorimotor neuropathy (summary by Karaca et al., 2014 and Schaffer et al., 2014). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of PCH, see PCH1 (607596).

Autosomal recessive spinocerebellar ataxia-20 is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by severely delayed psychomotor development with poor or absent speech, wide-based or absent gait, coarse facies, and cerebellar atrophy (summary by Thomas et al., 2014).

Aside from the clinical features of infantile cataract, skin abnormalities, and impaired intellectual development, CASGID is characterized by strikingly high intracerebral and urinary glutamate excess with almost undetectable glutamine. A gain-of-function mutation in the GLS gene was found (see MOLECULAR GENETICS) (Rumping et al., 2019). GLS loss of function is implicated in developmental and epileptic encephalopathy-71 (DEE71; 618328) and a syndrome of global developmental delay and progressive ataxia (GDPAG; 618412).

Galloway-Mowat syndrome-7 (GAMOS7) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by developmental delay, microcephaly, and early-onset nephrotic syndrome (summary by Rosti et al., 2017). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of GAMOS, see GAMOS1 (251300).

Short stature, amelogenesis imperfecta, and skeletal dysplasia with scoliosis (SSASKS)is characterized by disproportionate short stature, defective tooth enamel formation, and skeletal dysplasia with severe scoliosis in some patients. Variable features include facial dysmorphism, moderate hearing impairment, and mildly impaired intellectual development (Ashikov et al., 2018).

Myogenic-type arthrogryposis multiplex congenita-3 (AMC3) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by decreased fetal movements, hypotonia, variable skeletal defects, including clubfoot and scoliosis, and delayed motor milestones with difficulty walking (summary by Baumann et al., 2017).

Rothmund-Thomson syndrome (RTS) is characterized by a rash that progresses to poikiloderma; sparse hair, eyelashes, and/or eyebrows; small size; skeletal and dental abnormalities; juvenile cataracts; and an increased risk for cancer, especially osteosarcoma. A variety of benign and malignant hematologic abnormalities have been reported in affected individuals. The rash of RTS typically develops between ages three and six months (occasionally as late as age two years) as erythema, swelling, and blistering on the face, subsequently spreading to the buttocks and extremities. The rash evolves over months to years into the chronic pattern of reticulated hypo- and hyperpigmentation, telangiectasias, and punctate atrophy (collectively known as poikiloderma) that persist throughout life. Hyperkeratotic lesions occur in approximately one third of individuals. Skeletal abnormalities can include radial ray defects, ulnar defects, absent or hypoplastic patella, and osteopenia.

Osteogenesis imperfecta type XX (OI20) is a progressive deforming bone disorder characterized by osteopenia, skeletal deformity, and both healed and new fractures on radiography. Several patients have died due to respiratory failure (Moosa et al., 2019).

Individuals with PPP1R12A-related urogenital and/or brain malformation syndrome (UBMS) usually present with multiple congenital anomalies, commonly including brain and/or urogenital malformations. The brain abnormalities are variable, with the most severe belonging to the holoprosencephaly spectrum and associated with moderate-to-profound intellectual disability, seizures, and feeding difficulties. In individuals without brain involvement, variable degrees of developmental delay and/or intellectual disability may be present, although normal intelligence has been seen in a minority of affected individuals. Eye abnormalities and skeletal issues (kyphoscoliosis, joint contractures) can also be present in individuals of either sex. Regardless of the presence of a brain malformation, affected individuals with a 46,XY chromosome complement may have a disorder of sex development (DSD) with gonadal abnormalities (dysgenetic gonads or streak gonads). Individuals with a 46,XX chromosome complement may have varying degrees of virilization (clitoral hypertrophy, posterior labial fusion, urogenital sinus).

Arthrogryposis multiplex congenita-5 (AMC5) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by severe joint contractures apparent at birth. Affected individuals usually have hypertonia and abnormal movements suggestive of dystonia, as well as feeding and/or breathing difficulties. More variable features may include poor overall growth, strabismus, dysmorphic facies, and global developmental delay with impaired speech (summary by Kariminejad et al., 2017).

Intellectual developmental disorder with speech delay and axonal peripheral neuropathy (IDDSAPN) is an autosomal recessive neurologic disorder characterized by mild global developmental delay with motor impairment and severe speech delay apparent in the first years of life. Affected individuals begin to walk independently between 3 and 4 years of age, but often have an unsteady or ataxic gait. Most patients have progressive distal muscle weakness and atrophy of the lower limbs, foot or hand deformities, and dysarthria, consistent with a peripheral neuropathy. There is mildly impaired intellectual development. Some patients may have behavioral anomalies, such as autistic features or attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and some can attend special schools. The overall clinical features indicate involvement of both the central and peripheral nervous systems (summary by Martin et al., 2020 and Ahmed et al., 2021)

Axonal Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2HH (CMT2HH) is an autosomal dominant peripheral neuropathy characterized predominantly by onset of vocal cord weakness resulting in stridor in infancy or early childhood. The vocal cord paresis remains throughout life and may be severe enough to require tracheostomy. Additional features of the disorder usually include pes cavus and scoliosis. Some patients have mild distal muscle weakness and atrophy primarily affecting the lower limbs, although the upper limbs may also be involved, and distal sensory impairment, often with hyporeflexia (Sullivan et al., 2020). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of axonal CMT, see CMT2A1 (118210).

Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2X (CMT2X) is an autosomal recessive, slowly progressive, axonal peripheral sensorimotor neuropathy characterized by lower limb muscle weakness and atrophy associated with distal sensory impairment and gait difficulties. Some patients also have involvement of the upper limbs. Onset usually occurs in the first 2 decades of life, although later onset can also occur (summary by Montecchiani et al., 2016) For a phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of axonal CMT, see CMT2A1 (118210).

A restrictive dermopathy that has material basis in homozygous or compound heterozygous mutation in the ZMPSTE24 gene on chromosome 1p34.

Kagami-Ogata syndrome (KOS) is a rare imprinting disorder characterized prenatally by polyhydramnios, macrosomia, and placentomegaly. After birth, infants often have respiratory distress, feeding difficulties, and postnatal growth retardation. Thoracic abnormalities include small bell-shaped thorax, 'coat-hanger' ribs, narrow chest wall, and cardiac anomalies. Abdominal wall defects include omphalocele, diastasis recti, and inguinal hernias. Hepatoblastoma is present in some patients. Dysmorphic facial features include frontal bossing, depressed nasal bridge, hairy forehead, anteverted nares, micrognathia, and a short neck. Developmental findings include hypotonia, speech and/or motor delays, and normal to mildly impaired intellectual development (summary by Prasasya et al., 2020).

Neurodevelopmental disorder with facial dysmorphism, absent language, and pseudo-Pelger-Huet anomaly (NEDFLPH) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by global developmental delay with severely impaired intellectual development. Affected individuals often have behavioral abnormalities and may have variable findings on brain imaging, such as thin corpus callosum. Laboratory studies show nuclear lobulation defects in a subset of neutrophils, indicating a pseudo-Pelger-Huet anomaly (see 169400) and suggesting defects in the integrity of the nuclear envelope, where TMEM147 localizes (Thomas et al., 2022).

X-linked intellectual developmental disorder-111 (XLID111) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by different degrees of impaired intellectual development associated with motor, speech, and behavioral impairments (El Chehadeh et al., 2022).

X-linked intellectual disorder-112 (XLID112) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by developmental delay, with speech delay more prominent than motor delay, autism or autism traits, and variable dysmorphic features. Affected females have been reported, which appears to be related to skewed X-inactivation (summary by Hiatt et al., 2023).

Autosomal recessive intellectual developmental disorder-78 (MRT78) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impaired intellectual development that is usually mild, but shows variable severity. Affected individuals have microcephaly and mild short stature. Additional features may include ocular abnormalities and mild skeletal defects (Haag et al., 2021).

Autosomal recessive childhood-onset nemaline myopathy-5B (NEM5B) is a skeletal muscle disorder in which patients usually present with proximal muscle weakness of the lower and upper limbs in a limb-girdle distribution, resulting in gait abnormalities; however, most remain ambulatory even into late adulthood. Some affected individuals show delayed motor development. There is axial weakness and atrophy of the paraspinal muscles, along with kyphosis, scoliosis, and rigid spine, as well as variable limitations of the large joints. Most patients develop restrictive respiratory insufficiency with decreased forced vital capacity; some need noninvasive ventilation. Serum creatine kinase may be elevated. Muscle biopsy can show variable features, including nemaline rods, multiminicore lesions, endomysial fibrosis, and myofibrillar changes (Pellerin et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2022). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of nemaline myopathy, see NEM2 (256030).

Baraitser-Winter cerebrofrontofacial (BWCFF) syndrome is a multiple congenital anomaly syndrome characterized by typical craniofacial features and intellectual disability. Many (but not all) affected individuals have pachygyria that is predominantly frontal, wasting of the shoulder girdle muscles, and sensory impairment due to iris or retinal coloboma and/or sensorineural deafness. Intellectual disability, which is common but variable, is related to the severity of the brain malformations. Seizures, congenital heart defects, renal malformations, and gastrointestinal dysfunction are also common.

Neurodevelopmental disorder with impaired language, behavioral abnormalities, and dysmorphic facies (NEDLBF) is characterized by global developmental delay, speech delay, variably impaired intellectual development, behavioral abnormalities, and dysmorphic facial features. The phenotype and severity of the disorder is heterogeneous, ranging from borderline to severe. Brain imaging is usually normal. More variable additional features include early feeding difficulties, failure to thrive, short stature, mild visual impairment, hypotonia, seizures (particularly febrile), and distal skeletal defects of the hands and feet (Jia et al., 2022).