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Bifunctional peroxisomal enzyme deficiency(DBIF)

MedGen UID:
137982
Concept ID:
C0342870
Pathologic Function
Synonyms: D-bifunctional enzyme deficiency; D-bifunctional protein deficiency; DBIF; DBP deficiency; Pseudo Zellweger syndrome
SNOMED CT: Bifunctional peroxisomal enzyme deficiency (238068007)
 
Gene (location): HSD17B4 (5q23.1)
 
Monarch Initiative: MONDO:0009855
OMIM®: 261515
Orphanet: ORPHA300

Definition

D-bifunctional protein deficiency is a disorder of peroxisomal fatty acid beta-oxidation. See also peroxisomal acyl-CoA oxidase deficiency (264470), caused by mutation in the ACOX1 gene (609751) on chromosome 17q25. The clinical manifestations of these 2 deficiencies are similar to those of disorders of peroxisomal assembly, including X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD; 300100), Zellweger cerebrohepatorenal syndrome (see 214100) and neonatal adrenoleukodystrophy (NALD; see 601539) (Watkins et al., 1995). DBP deficiency has been classified into 3 subtypes depending upon the deficient enzyme activity. Type I is a deficiency of both 2-enoyl-CoA hydratase and 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase; type II is a deficiency of hydratase activity alone; and type III is a deficiency of dehydrogenase activity alone. Virtually all patients with types I, II, and III have a severe phenotype characterized by infantile-onset of hypotonia, seizures, and abnormal facial features, and most die before age 2 years. McMillan et al. (2012) proposed a type IV deficiency on the basis of less severe features; these patients have a phenotype reminiscent of Perrault syndrome (PRLTS1; 233400). Pierce et al. (2010) noted that Perrault syndrome and DBP deficiency overlap clinically and suggested that DBP deficiency may be underdiagnosed. [from OMIM]

Additional description

From MedlinePlus Genetics
D-bifunctional protein deficiency is a disorder that causes deterioration of nervous system functions (neurodegeneration) beginning in infancy. Newborns with D-bifunctional protein deficiency have weak muscle tone (hypotonia) and seizures. Most babies with this condition never acquire any developmental skills. Some may reach very early developmental milestones such as the ability to follow movement with their eyes or control their head movement, but they experience a gradual loss of these skills (developmental regression) within a few months. As the condition gets worse, affected children develop exaggerated reflexes (hyperreflexia), increased muscle tone (hypertonia), more severe and recurrent seizures (epilepsy), and loss of vision and hearing. Most children with D-bifunctional protein deficiency do not survive past the age of 2. A small number of individuals with this disorder are somewhat less severely affected. They may acquire additional basic skills, such as voluntary hand movements or unsupported sitting, before experiencing developmental regression, and they may survive longer into childhood than more severely affected individuals.

Individuals with D-bifunctional protein deficiency may have unusual facial features, including a high forehead, widely spaced eyes (hypertelorism), a lengthened area between the nose and mouth (philtrum), and a high arch of the hard palate at the roof of the mouth. Affected infants may also have an unusually large space between the bones of the skull (fontanelle). An enlarged liver (hepatomegaly) occurs in about half of affected individuals. Because these features are similar to those of another disorder called Zellweger syndrome (part of a group of disorders called the Zellweger spectrum), D-bifunctional protein deficiency is sometimes called pseudo-Zellweger syndrome.  https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/d-bifunctional-protein-deficiency

Clinical features

From HPO
Renal cyst
MedGen UID:
854361
Concept ID:
C3887499
Disease or Syndrome
A fluid filled sac in the kidney.
Clubfoot
MedGen UID:
3130
Concept ID:
C0009081
Congenital Abnormality
Clubfoot is a congenital limb deformity defined as fixation of the foot in cavus, adductus, varus, and equinus (i.e., inclined inwards, axially rotated outwards, and pointing downwards) with concomitant soft tissue abnormalities (Cardy et al., 2007). Clubfoot may occur in isolation or as part of a syndrome (e.g., diastrophic dysplasia, 222600). Clubfoot has been reported with deficiency of long bones and mirror-image polydactyly (Gurnett et al., 2008; Klopocki et al., 2012).
Hammertoe
MedGen UID:
209712
Concept ID:
C1136179
Anatomical Abnormality
Hyperextension of the metatarsal-phalangeal joint with hyperflexion of the proximal interphalangeal (PIP) joint.
Split hand
MedGen UID:
397570
Concept ID:
C2699510
Congenital Abnormality
A condition in which middle parts of the hand (fingers and metacarpals) are missing giving a cleft appearance. The severity is very variable ranging from slightly hypoplastic middle fingers over absent middle fingers as far as oligo- or monodactyl hands.
Failure to thrive
MedGen UID:
746019
Concept ID:
C2315100
Disease or Syndrome
Failure to thrive (FTT) refers to a child whose physical growth is substantially below the norm.
Cholestasis
MedGen UID:
925
Concept ID:
C0008370
Disease or Syndrome
Impairment of bile flow due to obstruction in bile ducts.
Hepatomegaly
MedGen UID:
42428
Concept ID:
C0019209
Finding
Abnormally increased size of the liver.
Bile duct proliferation
MedGen UID:
120603
Concept ID:
C0267818
Disease or Syndrome
Proliferative changes of the bile ducts.
Feeding difficulties in infancy
MedGen UID:
436211
Concept ID:
C2674608
Finding
Impaired feeding performance of an infant as manifested by difficulties such as weak and ineffective sucking, brief bursts of sucking, and falling asleep during sucking. There may be difficulties with chewing or maintaining attention.
Hepatic steatosis
MedGen UID:
398225
Concept ID:
C2711227
Disease or Syndrome
Steatosis is a term used to denote lipid accumulation within hepatocytes.
Low-set ears
MedGen UID:
65980
Concept ID:
C0239234
Congenital Abnormality
Upper insertion of the ear to the scalp below an imaginary horizontal line drawn between the inner canthi of the eye and extending posteriorly to the ear.
Hearing impairment
MedGen UID:
235586
Concept ID:
C1384666
Disease or Syndrome
A decreased magnitude of the sensory perception of sound.
Gliosis
MedGen UID:
4899
Concept ID:
C0017639
Pathologic Function
Gliosis is the focal proliferation of glial cells in the central nervous system.
Seizure
MedGen UID:
20693
Concept ID:
C0036572
Sign or Symptom
A seizure is an intermittent abnormality of nervous system physiology characterized by a transient occurrence of signs and/or symptoms due to abnormal excessive or synchronous neuronal activity in the brain.
Polymicrogyria
MedGen UID:
78605
Concept ID:
C0266464
Congenital Abnormality
Polymicrogyria is a congenital malformation of the cerebral cortex characterized by abnormal cortical layering (lamination) and an excessive number of small gyri (folds).
Hypoplasia of the corpus callosum
MedGen UID:
138005
Concept ID:
C0344482
Congenital Abnormality
Underdevelopment of the corpus callosum.
Corpus callosum atrophy
MedGen UID:
96560
Concept ID:
C0431370
Finding
The presence of atrophy (wasting) of the corpus callosum.
Cortical dysplasia
MedGen UID:
98129
Concept ID:
C0431380
Congenital Abnormality
The presence of developmental dysplasia of the cerebral cortex.
Bilateral tonic-clonic seizure
MedGen UID:
141670
Concept ID:
C0494475
Sign or Symptom
A bilateral tonic-clonic seizure is a seizure defined by a tonic (bilateral increased tone, lasting seconds to minutes) and then a clonic (bilateral sustained rhythmic jerking) phase.
Global developmental delay
MedGen UID:
107838
Concept ID:
C0557874
Finding
A delay in the achievement of motor or mental milestones in the domains of development of a child, including motor skills, speech and language, cognitive skills, and social and emotional skills. This term should only be used to describe children younger than five years of age.
Cerebellar atrophy
MedGen UID:
196624
Concept ID:
C0740279
Disease or Syndrome
Cerebellar atrophy is defined as a cerebellum with initially normal structures, in a posterior fossa with normal size, which displays enlarged fissures (interfolial spaces) in comparison to the foliae secondary to loss of tissue. Cerebellar atrophy implies irreversible loss of tissue and result from an ongoing progressive disease until a final stage is reached or a single injury, e.g. an intoxication or infectious event.
Cerebral dysmyelination
MedGen UID:
343222
Concept ID:
C1854885
Finding
Defective structure and function of myelin sheaths of the white matter of the brain.
Cerebral hypoplasia
MedGen UID:
343321
Concept ID:
C1855330
Finding
Underdevelopment of the cerebrum.
Decreased nerve conduction velocity
MedGen UID:
347509
Concept ID:
C1857640
Finding
A reduction in the speed at which electrical signals propagate along the axon of a neuron.
Motor regression
MedGen UID:
478627
Concept ID:
C3276997
Finding
Loss of previously achieved motor skills, as manifested by loss of developmental motor milestones.
Ventriculomegaly
MedGen UID:
480553
Concept ID:
C3278923
Finding
An increase in size of the ventricular system of the brain.
Micrognathia
MedGen UID:
44428
Concept ID:
C0025990
Congenital Abnormality
Developmental hypoplasia of the mandible.
Hypotonia
MedGen UID:
10133
Concept ID:
C0026827
Finding
Hypotonia is an abnormally low muscle tone (the amount of tension or resistance to movement in a muscle). Even when relaxed, muscles have a continuous and passive partial contraction which provides some resistance to passive stretching. Hypotonia thus manifests as diminished resistance to passive stretching. Hypotonia is not the same as muscle weakness, although the two conditions can co-exist.
Osteopenia
MedGen UID:
18222
Concept ID:
C0029453
Disease or Syndrome
Osteopenia is a term to define bone density that is not normal but also not as low as osteoporosis. By definition from the World Health Organization osteopenia is defined by bone densitometry as a T score -1 to -2.5.
Retrognathia
MedGen UID:
19766
Concept ID:
C0035353
Congenital Abnormality
An abnormality in which the mandible is mislocalised posteriorly.
Frontal bossing
MedGen UID:
67453
Concept ID:
C0221354
Congenital Abnormality
Bilateral bulging of the lateral frontal bone prominences with relative sparing of the midline.
Dolichocephaly
MedGen UID:
65142
Concept ID:
C0221358
Congenital Abnormality
An abnormality of skull shape characterized by a increased anterior-posterior diameter, i.e., an increased antero-posterior dimension of the skull. Cephalic index less than 76%. Alternatively, an apparently increased antero-posterior length of the head compared to width. Often due to premature closure of the sagittal suture.
Isolated scaphocephaly
MedGen UID:
82712
Concept ID:
C0265534
Congenital Abnormality
Scaphocephaly is a subtype of dolichocephaly where the anterior and posterior aspects of the cranial vault are pointed (boat-shaped). Scaphocephaly is caused by a precocious fusion of sagittal suture without other associated synostosis.
Delayed cranial suture closure
MedGen UID:
75805
Concept ID:
C0277828
Finding
Infants normally have two fontanels at birth, the diamond-shaped anterior fontanelle at the junction of the coronal and sagittal sutures, and the posterior fontanelle at the intersection of the occipital and parietal bones. The posterior fontanelle usually closes by the 8th week of life, and the anterior fontanel closes by the 18th month of life on average. This term applies if there is delay of closure of the fontanelles beyond the normal age.
Large fontanelles
MedGen UID:
105329
Concept ID:
C0456132
Finding
In newborns, the two frontal bones, two parietal bones, and one occipital bone are joined by fibrous sutures, which form a small posterior fontanelle, and a larger, diamond-shaped anterior fontanelle. These regions allow for the skull to pass the birth canal and for later growth. The fontanelles gradually ossify, whereby the posterior fontanelle usually closes by eight weeks and the anterior fontanelle by the 9th to 16th month of age. Large fontanelles are diagnosed if the fontanelles are larger than age-dependent norms.
Delayed skeletal maturation
MedGen UID:
108148
Concept ID:
C0541764
Finding
A decreased rate of skeletal maturation. Delayed skeletal maturation can be diagnosed on the basis of an estimation of the bone age from radiographs of specific bones in the human body.
Decreased muscle mass
MedGen UID:
373256
Concept ID:
C1837108
Finding
Thoracic hypoplasia
MedGen UID:
373339
Concept ID:
C1837482
Congenital Abnormality
Calcific stippling
MedGen UID:
340441
Concept ID:
C1849993
Finding
An abnormal punctate (speckled, dot-like) pattern of calcifications in soft tissues within or surrounding bones (as observed on radiographs).
Pectus excavatum
MedGen UID:
781174
Concept ID:
C2051831
Finding
A defect of the chest wall characterized by a depression of the sternum, giving the chest ("pectus") a caved-in ("excavatum") appearance.
Macrocephaly
MedGen UID:
745757
Concept ID:
C2243051
Finding
Occipitofrontal (head) circumference greater than 97th centile compared to appropriate, age matched, sex-matched normal standards. Alternatively, a apparently increased size of the cranium.
Neonatal hypotonia
MedGen UID:
412209
Concept ID:
C2267233
Disease or Syndrome
Muscular hypotonia (abnormally low muscle tone) manifesting in the neonatal period.
Splenomegaly
MedGen UID:
52469
Concept ID:
C0038002
Finding
Abnormal increased size of the spleen.
Elevated circulating hepatic transaminase concentration
MedGen UID:
338525
Concept ID:
C1848701
Finding
Elevations of the levels of SGOT and SGPT in the serum. SGOT (serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase) and SGPT (serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase) are transaminases primarily found in the liver and heart and are released into the bloodstream as the result of liver or heart damage. SGOT and SGPT are used clinically mainly as markers of liver damage.
Very long chain fatty acid accumulation
MedGen UID:
481027
Concept ID:
C3279397
Finding
Increased circulating very long-chain fatty acid concentration
MedGen UID:
1788690
Concept ID:
C5539740
Finding
Increased concentration of very long-chain fatty acids in the blood circulation. Very long-chain fatty acids are fatty acids (FAs) with a chain-length of 22 or more carbons.
High forehead
MedGen UID:
65991
Concept ID:
C0239676
Finding
An abnormally increased height of the forehead.
High palate
MedGen UID:
66814
Concept ID:
C0240635
Congenital Abnormality
Height of the palate more than 2 SD above the mean (objective) or palatal height at the level of the first permanent molar more than twice the height of the teeth (subjective).
Upslanted palpebral fissure
MedGen UID:
98390
Concept ID:
C0423109
Finding
The palpebral fissure inclination is more than two standard deviations above the mean for age (objective); or, the inclination of the palpebral fissure is greater than typical for age.
Epicanthus
MedGen UID:
151862
Concept ID:
C0678230
Congenital Abnormality
Epicanthus is a condition in which a fold of skin stretches from the upper to the lower eyelid, partially covering the inner canthus. Usher (1935) noted that epicanthus is a normal finding in the fetus of all races. Epicanthus also occurs in association with hereditary ptosis (110100).
Depressed nasal bridge
MedGen UID:
373112
Concept ID:
C1836542
Finding
Posterior positioning of the nasal root in relation to the overall facial profile for age.
Long philtrum
MedGen UID:
351278
Concept ID:
C1865014
Finding
Distance between nasal base and midline upper lip vermilion border more than 2 SD above the mean. Alternatively, an apparently increased distance between nasal base and midline upper lip vermilion border.
Polyhydramnios
MedGen UID:
6936
Concept ID:
C0020224
Pathologic Function
The presence of excess amniotic fluid in the uterus during pregnancy.
Fetal ascites
MedGen UID:
226930
Concept ID:
C1285291
Disease or Syndrome
Accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity during the fetal period.
Primary adrenal insufficiency
MedGen UID:
854614
Concept ID:
C3887896
Disease or Syndrome
Insufficient production of steroid hormones (primarily cortisol) by the adrenal glands as a result of a primary defect in the glands themselves.
Hypertelorism
MedGen UID:
9373
Concept ID:
C0020534
Finding
Although hypertelorism means an excessive distance between any paired organs (e.g., the nipples), the use of the word has come to be confined to ocular hypertelorism. Hypertelorism occurs as an isolated feature and is also a feature of many syndromes, e.g., Opitz G syndrome (see 300000), Greig cephalopolysyndactyly (175700), and Noonan syndrome (163950) (summary by Cohen et al., 1995).
Nystagmus
MedGen UID:
45166
Concept ID:
C0028738
Disease or Syndrome
Rhythmic, involuntary oscillations of one or both eyes related to abnormality in fixation, conjugate gaze, or vestibular mechanisms.
Strabismus
MedGen UID:
21337
Concept ID:
C0038379
Disease or Syndrome
A misalignment of the eyes so that the visual axes deviate from bifoveal fixation. The classification of strabismus may be based on a number of features including the relative position of the eyes, whether the deviation is latent or manifest, intermittent or constant, concomitant or otherwise and according to the age of onset and the relevance of any associated refractive error.
Undetectable electroretinogram
MedGen UID:
383742
Concept ID:
C1855685
Finding
Lack of any response to stimulation upon electroretinography.
Visual loss
MedGen UID:
784038
Concept ID:
C3665386
Finding
Loss of visual acuity (implying that vision was better at a certain time point in life). Otherwise the term reduced visual acuity should be used (or a subclass of that).

Term Hierarchy

CClinical test,  RResearch test,  OOMIM,  GGeneReviews,  VClinVar  
  • CROGVBifunctional peroxisomal enzyme deficiency
Follow this link to review classifications for Bifunctional peroxisomal enzyme deficiency in Orphanet.

Professional guidelines

PubMed

Vogel BH, Bradley SE, Adams DJ, D'Aco K, Erbe RW, Fong C, Iglesias A, Kronn D, Levy P, Morrissey M, Orsini J, Parton P, Pellegrino J, Saavedra-Matiz CA, Shur N, Wasserstein M, Raymond GV, Caggana M
Mol Genet Metab 2015 Apr;114(4):599-603. Epub 2015 Feb 12 doi: 10.1016/j.ymgme.2015.02.002. PMID: 25724074
Ferdinandusse S, Ylianttila MS, Gloerich J, Koski MK, Oostheim W, Waterham HR, Hiltunen JK, Wanders RJ, Glumoff T
Am J Hum Genet 2006 Jan;78(1):112-24. Epub 2005 Nov 15 doi: 10.1086/498880. PMID: 16385454Free PMC Article

Recent clinical studies

Etiology

Gagnon C, Hurst ACE, Ashraf AP
Horm Res Paediatr 2023;96(4):439-445. Epub 2023 Jan 17 doi: 10.1159/000529126. PMID: 36649687
Aubourg P, Wanders R
Handb Clin Neurol 2013;113:1593-609. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-444-59565-2.00028-9. PMID: 23622381
Huyghe S, Mannaerts GP, Baes M, Van Veldhoven PP
Biochim Biophys Acta 2006 Sep;1761(9):973-94. Epub 2006 May 5 doi: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2006.04.006. PMID: 16766224
Takahashi Y, Suzuki Y, Kumazaki K, Tanabe Y, Akaboshi S, Miura K, Shimozawa N, Kondo N, Nishiguchi T, Terada K, Orii T
Epilepsia 1997 Feb;38(2):182-8. doi: 10.1111/j.1528-1157.1997.tb01095.x. PMID: 9048670
Watkins PA, McGuinness MC, Raymond GV, Hicks BA, Sisk JM, Moser AB, Moser HW
Ann Neurol 1995 Sep;38(3):472-7. doi: 10.1002/ana.410380322. PMID: 7668838

Diagnosis

Engelen M
Handb Clin Neurol 2024;204:139-145. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-323-99209-1.00021-1. PMID: 39322376
Lines MA, Jobling R, Brady L, Marshall CR, Scherer SW, Rodriguez AR, Lee L, Lang AE, Mestre TA, Wanders RJ, Ferdinandusse S, Tarnopolsky MA; Canadian Pediatric Genetic Disorders Sequencing Consortium (FORGE Canada)
Neurology 2014 Mar 18;82(11):963-8. Epub 2014 Feb 19 doi: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000000219. PMID: 24553428Free PMC Article
Aubourg P, Wanders R
Handb Clin Neurol 2013;113:1593-609. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-444-59565-2.00028-9. PMID: 23622381
Clayton PT
J Inherit Metab Dis 1991;14(4):478-96. doi: 10.1007/BF01797919. PMID: 1749214
Watkins PA, Chen WW, Harris CJ, Hoefler G, Hoefler S, Blake DC Jr, Balfe A, Kelley RI, Moser AB, Beard ME
J Clin Invest 1989 Mar;83(3):771-7. doi: 10.1172/JCI113956. PMID: 2921319Free PMC Article

Therapy

Wang H, Lu J, Chen X, Schwalbe M, Gorka JE, Mandel JA, Wang J, Goetzman ES, Ranganathan S, Dobrowolski SF, Prochownik EV
J Biol Chem 2021 Jan-Jun;296:100283. Epub 2021 Jan 13 doi: 10.1016/j.jbc.2021.100283. PMID: 33450224Free PMC Article
Buoni S, Zannolli R, Waterham H, Wanders R, Fois A
Brain Dev 2007 Jan;29(1):51-4. Epub 2006 Aug 21 doi: 10.1016/j.braindev.2006.06.004. PMID: 16919904
Takahashi Y, Suzuki Y, Kumazaki K, Tanabe Y, Akaboshi S, Miura K, Shimozawa N, Kondo N, Nishiguchi T, Terada K, Orii T
Epilepsia 1997 Feb;38(2):182-8. doi: 10.1111/j.1528-1157.1997.tb01095.x. PMID: 9048670
Lazarow PB, Black V, Shio H, Fujiki Y, Hajra AK, Datta NS, Bangaru BS, Dancis J
Pediatr Res 1985 Dec;19(12):1356-64. doi: 10.1203/00006450-198512000-00030. PMID: 4080458

Prognosis

Ognean ML, Mutică IB, Vișa GA, Șofariu CR, Matei C, Neamțu B, Cucerea M, Galiș R, Cocișiu GA, Mătăcuță-Bogdan IO
Int J Mol Sci 2024 Apr 30;25(9) doi: 10.3390/ijms25094924. PMID: 38732138Free PMC Article
Werner KM, Cox AJ, Qian E, Jain P, Ji W, Tikhonova I, Castaldi C, Bilguvar K, Knight J, Ferdinandusse S, Fawaz R, Jiang YH, Gallagher PG, Bizzarro M, Gruen JR, Bale A, Zhang H
Am J Med Genet A 2022 Jan;188(1):357-363. Epub 2021 Oct 8 doi: 10.1002/ajmg.a.62520. PMID: 34623748Free PMC Article
Konkoľová J, Petrovič R, Chandoga J, Repiský M, Zelinková H, Kršiaková J, Kolníková M, Kantarská D, Šutovský S, Böhmer D
Gene 2015 Aug 15;568(1):61-8. Epub 2015 May 9 doi: 10.1016/j.gene.2015.05.020. PMID: 25967389
Ferdinandusse S, Denis S, Mooyer PA, Dekker C, Duran M, Soorani-Lunsing RJ, Boltshauser E, Macaya A, Gärtner J, Majoie CB, Barth PG, Wanders RJ, Poll-The BT
Ann Neurol 2006 Jan;59(1):92-104. doi: 10.1002/ana.20702. PMID: 16278854
Watkins PA, McGuinness MC, Raymond GV, Hicks BA, Sisk JM, Moser AB, Moser HW
Ann Neurol 1995 Sep;38(3):472-7. doi: 10.1002/ana.410380322. PMID: 7668838

Clinical prediction guides

Fogh S, Dipace G, Bie A, Veiga-da-Cunha M, Hansen J, Kjeldsen M, Mosegaard S, Ribes A, Gregersen N, Aagaard L, Van Schaftingen E, Olsen RKJ
J Inherit Metab Dis 2021 Sep;44(5):1215-1225. Epub 2021 Jun 8 doi: 10.1002/jimd.12394. PMID: 33973257Free PMC Article
Berger J, Dorninger F, Forss-Petter S, Kunze M
Biochim Biophys Acta 2016 May;1863(5):934-55. Epub 2015 Dec 11 doi: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2015.12.005. PMID: 26686055Free PMC Article
Huyghe S, Mannaerts GP, Baes M, Van Veldhoven PP
Biochim Biophys Acta 2006 Sep;1761(9):973-94. Epub 2006 May 5 doi: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2006.04.006. PMID: 16766224
Ferdinandusse S, Ylianttila MS, Gloerich J, Koski MK, Oostheim W, Waterham HR, Hiltunen JK, Wanders RJ, Glumoff T
Am J Hum Genet 2006 Jan;78(1):112-24. Epub 2005 Nov 15 doi: 10.1086/498880. PMID: 16385454Free PMC Article
Ferdinandusse S, Denis S, Mooyer PA, Dekker C, Duran M, Soorani-Lunsing RJ, Boltshauser E, Macaya A, Gärtner J, Majoie CB, Barth PG, Wanders RJ, Poll-The BT
Ann Neurol 2006 Jan;59(1):92-104. doi: 10.1002/ana.20702. PMID: 16278854

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