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Larsen syndrome(LRS)

MedGen UID:
104500
Concept ID:
C0175778
Disease or Syndrome
Synonyms: Bilateral dislocation of the knees, pes cavus, cylindrically shaped fingers and characteristic facies; Larsen syndrome, dominant type; LRS
SNOMED CT: Larsen syndrome (63387002)
Modes of inheritance:
Autosomal dominant inheritance
MedGen UID:
141047
Concept ID:
C0443147
Intellectual Product
Source: Orphanet
A mode of inheritance that is observed for traits related to a gene encoded on one of the autosomes (i.e., the human chromosomes 1-22) in which a trait manifests in heterozygotes. In the context of medical genetics, an autosomal dominant disorder is caused when a single copy of the mutant allele is present. Males and females are affected equally, and can both transmit the disorder with a risk of 50% for each child of inheriting the mutant allele.
 
Gene (location): FLNB (3p14.3)
 
Monarch Initiative: MONDO:0007875
OMIM®: 150250
Orphanet: ORPHA503

Disease characteristics

Excerpted from the GeneReview: FLNB Disorders
The FLNB disorders include a spectrum of phenotypes ranging from mild to severe. At the mild end are spondylocarpotarsal synostosis (SCT) syndrome and Larsen syndrome; at the severe end are the phenotypic continuum of atelosteogenesis types I (AOI) and III (AOIII) and Piepkorn osteochondrodysplasia (POCD). SCT syndrome is characterized by postnatal disproportionate short stature, scoliosis and lordosis, clubfeet, hearing loss, dental enamel hypoplasia, carpal and tarsal synostosis, and vertebral fusions. Larsen syndrome is characterized by congenital dislocations of the hip, knee, and elbow; clubfeet (equinovarus or equinovalgus foot deformities); scoliosis and cervical kyphosis, which can be associated with a cervical myelopathy; short, broad, spatulate distal phalanges; distinctive craniofacies (prominent forehead, depressed nasal bridge, malar flattening, and widely spaced eyes); vertebral anomalies; and supernumerary carpal and tarsal bone ossification centers. Individuals with SCT syndrome and Larsen syndrome can have midline cleft palate and hearing loss. AOI and AOIII are characterized by severe short-limbed dwarfism; dislocated hips, knees, and elbows; and clubfeet. AOI is lethal in the perinatal period. In individuals with AOIII, survival beyond the neonatal period is possible with intensive and invasive respiratory support. Piepkorn osteochondrodysplasia (POCD) is a perinatal-lethal micromelic dwarfism characterized by flipper-like limbs (polysyndactyly with complete syndactyly of all fingers and toes, hypoplastic or absent first digits, and duplicated intermediate and distal phalanges), macrobrachycephaly, prominant forehead, hypertelorism, and exophthalmos. Occasional features include cleft palate, omphalocele, and cardiac and genitourinary anomalies. The radiographic features at mid-gestation are characteristic. [from GeneReviews]
Authors:
Stephen Robertson   view full author information

Additional descriptions

From OMIM
Larsen syndrome (LRS) is an osteochondrodysplasia characterized by large-joint dislocations and characteristic craniofacial abnormalities. The cardinal features of the condition are dislocations of the hip, knee and elbow joints, with equinovarus or equinovalgus foot deformities. Spatula-shaped fingers, most marked in the thumb, are also present. Craniofacial anomalies include hypertelorism, prominence of the forehead, a depressed nasal bridge, and a flattened midface. Cleft palate and short stature are often associated features. Spinal anomalies include scoliosis and cervical kyphosis. Hearing loss is a well-recognized complication (summary by Bicknell et al., 2007). An autosomal recessive syndrome with overlapping features (multiple joint dislocations, short stature, craniofacial dysmorphism, and congenital heart defects; 245600) is caused by mutation in the B3GAT3 gene (606374) on chromosome 11q12.  http://www.omim.org/entry/150250
From MedlinePlus Genetics
Larsen syndrome is a disorder that affects the development of bones throughout the body. The signs and symptoms of Larsen syndrome vary widely even within the same family. Affected individuals are usually born with dislocations of the hips, knees, or elbows. Foot abnormalities, such as inward- and upward-turning feet (clubfeet), are also common. Affected individuals generally have small extra bones in their wrists and ankles that are visible on x-ray images. The tips of their fingers, especially the thumbs, are typically blunt and square-shaped (spatulate).

Characteristic facial features in people with Larsen syndrome include a prominent forehead (frontal bossing), flattening of the bridge of the nose and middle of the face (midface hypoplasia), and wide-set eyes (ocular hypertelorism). Many people with Larsen syndrome have an opening in the roof of the mouth (a cleft palate). Affected individuals may also have hearing loss caused by malformations in tiny bones in the ears (ossicles).

Short stature is a common feature of Larsen syndrome. In addition, people with the condition may have an unusually large range of joint movement (hypermobility) or joint deformities (contractures) that restrict movement. People with Larsen syndrome can also have abnormal curvature of the spine (kyphosis or scoliosis) that can impair breathing or compress the spinal cord and lead to weakness of the limbs. Some affected individuals experience respiratory problems, such as partial closing of the airways, short pauses in breathing (apnea), and frequent respiratory infections. Heart and kidney problems can also occur in people with Larsen syndrome. People with this condition can survive into adulthood. Their intellectual function is usually unaffected.  https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/larsen-syndrome

Clinical features

From HPO
Cryptorchidism
MedGen UID:
8192
Concept ID:
C0010417
Congenital Abnormality
Cryptorchidism, or failure of testicular descent, is a common human congenital abnormality with a multifactorial etiology that likely reflects the involvement of endocrine, environmental, and hereditary factors. Cryptorchidism can result in infertility and increases risk for testicular tumors. Testicular descent from abdomen to scrotum occurs in 2 distinct phases: the transabdominal phase and the inguinoscrotal phase (summary by Gorlov et al., 2002).
Clubfoot
MedGen UID:
3130
Concept ID:
C0009081
Congenital Abnormality
Clubfoot is a congenital limb deformity defined as fixation of the foot in cavus, adductus, varus, and equinus (i.e., inclined inwards, axially rotated outwards, and pointing downwards) with concomitant soft tissue abnormalities (Cardy et al., 2007). Clubfoot may occur in isolation or as part of a syndrome (e.g., diastrophic dysplasia, 222600). Clubfoot has been reported with deficiency of long bones and mirror-image polydactyly (Gurnett et al., 2008; Klopocki et al., 2012).
Knee dislocation
MedGen UID:
102364
Concept ID:
C0159970
Injury or Poisoning
Slippage of the FEMUR off the TIBIA.
Spatulate thumbs
MedGen UID:
66028
Concept ID:
C0241395
Finding
Spoon-shaped, broad thumbs.
Accessory carpal bones
MedGen UID:
120549
Concept ID:
C0265609
Congenital Abnormality
The presence of more than the normal number of carpal bones.
Talipes equinovalgus
MedGen UID:
78567
Concept ID:
C0265642
Congenital Abnormality
A deformity of foot and ankle in which the foot is bent down and outwards.
Multiple carpal ossification centers
MedGen UID:
320638
Concept ID:
C1835573
Finding
A delay in the process of formation and maturation of the epiphysis of one or more long bones.
Bipartite calcaneus
MedGen UID:
320639
Concept ID:
C1835574
Finding
A two-part calcaneus, a finding that probably results from delayed coalescence of two primary calcaneal centers of ossification.
Short metacarpal
MedGen UID:
323064
Concept ID:
C1837084
Anatomical Abnormality
Diminished length of one or more metacarpal bones in relation to the others of the same hand or to the contralateral metacarpal.
Short metatarsal
MedGen UID:
341358
Concept ID:
C1849020
Finding
Diminished length of a metatarsal bone, with resultant proximal displacement of the associated toe.
Tapered humerus
MedGen UID:
871066
Concept ID:
C4025531
Anatomical Abnormality
Aortic aneurysm
MedGen UID:
362
Concept ID:
C0003486
Disease or Syndrome
Aortic dilatation refers to a dimension that is greater than the 95th percentile for the normal person age, sex and body size. In contrast, an aneurysm is defined as a localized dilation of the aorta that is more than 150 percent of predicted (ratio of observed to expected diameter 1.5 or more). Aneurysm should be distinguished from ectasia, which represents a diffuse dilation of the aorta less than 50 percent of normal aorta diameter.
Atrial septal defect
MedGen UID:
6753
Concept ID:
C0018817
Congenital Abnormality
Atrial septal defect (ASD) is a congenital abnormality of the interatrial septum that enables blood flow between the left and right atria via the interatrial septum.
Ventricular septal defect
MedGen UID:
42366
Concept ID:
C0018818
Congenital Abnormality
A hole between the two bottom chambers (ventricles) of the heart. The defect is centered around the most superior aspect of the ventricular septum.
Fetal growth restriction
MedGen UID:
4693
Concept ID:
C0015934
Pathologic Function
An abnormal restriction of fetal growth with fetal weight below the tenth percentile for gestational age.
Short stature
MedGen UID:
87607
Concept ID:
C0349588
Finding
A height below that which is expected according to age and gender norms. Although there is no universally accepted definition of short stature, many refer to "short stature" as height more than 2 standard deviations below the mean for age and gender (or below the 3rd percentile for age and gender dependent norms).
Conductive hearing impairment
MedGen UID:
9163
Concept ID:
C0018777
Disease or Syndrome
An abnormality of vibrational conductance of sound to the inner ear leading to impairment of sensory perception of sound.
Hearing impairment
MedGen UID:
235586
Concept ID:
C1384666
Disease or Syndrome
A decreased magnitude of the sensory perception of sound.
Spinal cord compression
MedGen UID:
11549
Concept ID:
C0037926
Disease or Syndrome
External mechanical compression of the spinal cord.
Spina bifida occulta
MedGen UID:
36380
Concept ID:
C0080174
Congenital Abnormality
The closed form of spina bifida with incomplete closure of a vertebral body with intact overlying skin.
Intellectual disability
MedGen UID:
811461
Concept ID:
C3714756
Mental or Behavioral Dysfunction
Intellectual disability, previously referred to as mental retardation, is characterized by subnormal intellectual functioning that occurs during the developmental period. It is defined by an IQ score below 70.
Hip dislocation
MedGen UID:
42455
Concept ID:
C0019554
Injury or Poisoning
Displacement of the femur from its normal location in the hip joint.
Scoliosis
MedGen UID:
11348
Concept ID:
C0036439
Disease or Syndrome
The presence of an abnormal lateral curvature of the spine.
Spondylolysis
MedGen UID:
21294
Concept ID:
C0038018
Disease or Syndrome
Spondylolysis is an osseous defect of the pars interarticularis, thought to be a developmental or acquired stress fracture secondary to chronic low-grade trauma.
Pectus carinatum
MedGen UID:
57643
Concept ID:
C0158731
Finding
A deformity of the chest caused by overgrowth of the ribs and characterized by protrusion of the sternum.
Frontal bossing
MedGen UID:
67453
Concept ID:
C0221354
Congenital Abnormality
Bilateral bulging of the lateral frontal bone prominences with relative sparing of the midline.
Cervical kyphosis
MedGen UID:
107898
Concept ID:
C0575170
Finding
Exaggerated convexity of the cervical vertebral column, causing the cervical spine to bow outwards and take on a rounded appearance.
Hypoplastic cervical vertebrae
MedGen UID:
372079
Concept ID:
C1835570
Finding
Joint hypermobility
MedGen UID:
336793
Concept ID:
C1844820
Finding
The capability that a joint (or a group of joints) has to move, passively and/or actively, beyond normal limits along physiological axes.
Beaking of vertebral bodies
MedGen UID:
341588
Concept ID:
C1856599
Finding
Anterior tongue-like protrusions of the vertebral bodies.
Malar flattening
MedGen UID:
347616
Concept ID:
C1858085
Finding
Underdevelopment of the malar prominence of the jugal bone (zygomatic bone in mammals), appreciated in profile, frontal view, and/or by palpation.
Shallow orbits
MedGen UID:
351328
Concept ID:
C1865244
Finding
Reduced depth of the orbits associated with prominent-appearing ocular globes.
Pectus excavatum
MedGen UID:
781174
Concept ID:
C2051831
Finding
A defect of the chest wall characterized by a depression of the sternum, giving the chest ("pectus") a caved-in ("excavatum") appearance.
Elbow dislocation
MedGen UID:
404765
Concept ID:
C2720437
Injury or Poisoning
Dislocation of the distal humerus out of the elbow joint, where the radius, ulna, and humerus meet.
Dislocated wrist
MedGen UID:
480063
Concept ID:
C3278433
Injury or Poisoning
An injury of the wrist with displacement of any of the eight carpal bones.
Vertebral fusion
MedGen UID:
480139
Concept ID:
C3278509
Anatomical Abnormality
A developmental defect leading to the union of two adjacent vertebrae.
Tracheal stenosis
MedGen UID:
21227
Concept ID:
C0040583
Disease or Syndrome
Narrowing of the lumen of the trachea.
Bronchomalacia
MedGen UID:
82679
Concept ID:
C0264353
Disease or Syndrome
Weakness or softness of the cartilage in the walls of the bronchial tubes.
Tracheomalacia
MedGen UID:
215296
Concept ID:
C0948187
Disease or Syndrome
Congenital tracheomalacia is a rare condition where the trachea is soft and flexible causing the tracheal wall to collapse when exhaling, coughing or crying, that usually presents in infancy, and that is characterized by stridor and noisy breathing or upper respiratory infections. Tracheomalacia improves by the age of 18-24 months.
Cleft upper lip
MedGen UID:
40327
Concept ID:
C0008924
Congenital Abnormality
A gap or groove in the upper lip. This is a congenital defect resulting from nonfusion of tissues of the lip during embryonal development.
Partial congenital absence of teeth
MedGen UID:
43794
Concept ID:
C0020608
Congenital Abnormality
Tooth agenesis in some form is a common human anomaly that affects approximately 20% of the population. Although tooth agenesis is associated with numerous syndromes, several case reports describe nonsyndromic forms that are either sporadic or familial in nature, as reviewed by Gorlin et al. (1990). The incidence of familial tooth agenesis varies with each class of teeth. Most commonly affected are third molars (wisdom teeth), followed by either upper lateral incisors or lower second premolars; agenesis involving first and second molars is very rare. Also see 114600 and 302400. Selective tooth agenesis without associated systemic disorders has sometimes been divided into 2 types: oligodontia, defined as agenesis of 6 or more permanent teeth, and hypodontia, defined as agenesis of less than 6 teeth. The number in both cases does not include absence of third molars (wisdom teeth). Faulty use of the terms, however, have confounded their use. The term 'partial anodontia' is obsolete (Salinas, 1978). Genetic Heterogeneity of Selective Tooth Agenesis Other forms of selective tooth agenesis include STHAG2 (602639), mapped to chromosome 16q12; STHAG3 (604625), caused by mutation in the PAX9 gene (167416) on chromosome 14q12; STHAG4 (150400), caused by mutation in the WNT10A gene (606268) on chromosome 2q35; STHAG5 (610926), mapped to chromosome 10q11; STHAG7 (616724), caused by mutation in the LRP6 gene (603507) on chromosome 12p13; STHAG8 (617073), caused by mutation in the WNT10B gene (601906) on chromosome 12q13; STHAG9 (617275), caused by mutation in the GREM2 gene (608832) on chromosome 1q43; STHAG10 (620173), caused by mutation in the TSPEAR gene (612920) on chromosome 21q22; and STHAGX1 (313500), caused by mutation in the EDA gene (300451) on chromosome Xq13. A type of selective tooth agenesis that was formerly designated STHAG6 has been incorporated into the dental anomalies and short stature syndrome (DASS; 601216). Of 34 unrelated patients with nonsyndromic tooth agenesis, van den Boogaard et al. (2012) found that 56% (19 patients) had mutations in the WNT10A gene (STHAG4), whereas only 3% and 9% had mutations in the MSX1 (STHAG1) and PAX9 (STHAG3) genes, respectively. The authors concluded that WNT10A is a major gene in the etiology of isolated hypodontia. Genotype-Phenotype Correlations Yu et al. (2016) observed that the most frequently missing permanent teeth in WNT10B-associated oligodontia were the lateral incisors (83.3%), whereas premolars were missing only 51.4% of the time, which they noted was a pattern 'clearly different' from the oligodontia patterns resulting from WNT10A mutations. They also stated that the selective pattern in WNT10B mutants was different from that associated with mutations in other genes, such as MSX1, in which second premolars are missing, and PAX9, in which there is agenesis of molars.
Depressed nasal bridge
MedGen UID:
373112
Concept ID:
C1836542
Finding
Posterior positioning of the nasal root in relation to the overall facial profile for age.
Prominent forehead
MedGen UID:
373291
Concept ID:
C1837260
Finding
Forward prominence of the entire forehead, due to protrusion of the frontal bone.
Flat face
MedGen UID:
342829
Concept ID:
C1853241
Finding
Absence of concavity or convexity of the face when viewed in profile.
Midface retrusion
MedGen UID:
339938
Concept ID:
C1853242
Anatomical Abnormality
Posterior positions and/or vertical shortening of the infraorbital and perialar regions, or increased concavity of the face and/or reduced nasolabial angle.
Cleft palate
MedGen UID:
756015
Concept ID:
C2981150
Congenital Abnormality
Cleft palate is a developmental defect of the palate resulting from a failure of fusion of the palatine processes and manifesting as a separation of the roof of the mouth (soft and hard palate).
Short nail
MedGen UID:
140850
Concept ID:
C0423808
Finding
Decreased length of nail.
Corneal opacity
MedGen UID:
40485
Concept ID:
C0010038
Finding
A reduction of corneal clarity.
Hypertelorism
MedGen UID:
9373
Concept ID:
C0020534
Finding
Although hypertelorism means an excessive distance between any paired organs (e.g., the nipples), the use of the word has come to be confined to ocular hypertelorism. Hypertelorism occurs as an isolated feature and is also a feature of many syndromes, e.g., Opitz G syndrome (see 300000), Greig cephalopolysyndactyly (175700), and Noonan syndrome (163950) (summary by Cohen et al., 1995).

Term Hierarchy

CClinical test,  RResearch test,  OOMIM,  GGeneReviews,  VClinVar  
  • CROGVLarsen syndrome

Professional guidelines

PubMed

Sever R, Fishkin M, Hemo Y, Wientroub S, Yaniv M
J Pediatr Orthop 2019 Sep;39(8):436-440. doi: 10.1097/BPO.0000000000000973. PMID: 31393310
Girisha KM, Bidchol AM, Graul-Neumann L, Gupta A, Hehr U, Lessel D, Nader S, Shah H, Wickert J, Kutsche K
BMC Med Genet 2016 Apr 6;17:27. doi: 10.1186/s12881-016-0290-6. PMID: 27048506Free PMC Article

Recent clinical studies

Etiology

Alessandri JL, Celse T, Spodenkiewicz M, Calaya A, Dumont C, Jacquemont ML, Bertaut-Nativel B, Boumahni B, Rémy M, Ferroul F, Guilly S, Huby T, Irabé M, Laurens T, Munier P, Morel G, Payet F, Randrianaivo H, Doray B, Dospeux J
Eur J Med Genet 2024 Jun;69:104940. Epub 2024 May 3 doi: 10.1016/j.ejmg.2024.104940. PMID: 38705458
Handa A, Grigelioniene G, Nishimura G
Radiographics 2023 May;43(5):e220067. doi: 10.1148/rg.220067. PMID: 37053103
Marques LHS, Martins DV, Juares GL, Lorenzetti FTM, Monsanto RDC
Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2017 Oct;101:223-229. Epub 2017 Aug 22 doi: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2017.08.020. PMID: 28964299
Xu Q, Wu N, Cui L, Wu Z, Qiu G
J Genet Genomics 2017 Jul 20;44(7):335-342. Epub 2017 Jul 6 doi: 10.1016/j.jgg.2017.04.007. PMID: 28739045
McKay SD, Al-Omari A, Tomlinson LA, Dormans JP
Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2012 Mar 1;37(5):E269-77. doi: 10.1097/BRS.0b013e31823b3ded. PMID: 22045003

Diagnosis

Handa A, Grigelioniene G, Nishimura G
Radiographics 2023 May;43(5):e220067. doi: 10.1148/rg.220067. PMID: 37053103
Yasunaga M, Ishikawa H, Yanagita K, Tamaoki S
BMC Oral Health 2021 Mar 10;21(1):111. doi: 10.1186/s12903-021-01454-x. PMID: 33691679Free PMC Article
McKay SD, Al-Omari A, Tomlinson LA, Dormans JP
Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2012 Mar 1;37(5):E269-77. doi: 10.1097/BRS.0b013e31823b3ded. PMID: 22045003
Gupta N, Kabra M
Indian Pediatr 2008 Sep;45(9):783-4. PMID: 18820390
Raff ML, Byers PH
Curr Opin Rheumatol 1996 Sep;8(5):459-66. doi: 10.1097/00002281-199609000-00012. PMID: 8941450

Therapy

Marques LHS, Martins DV, Juares GL, Lorenzetti FTM, Monsanto RDC
Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2017 Oct;101:223-229. Epub 2017 Aug 22 doi: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2017.08.020. PMID: 28964299
Bicknell LS, Farrington-Rock C, Shafeghati Y, Rump P, Alanay Y, Alembik Y, Al-Madani N, Firth H, Karimi-Nejad MH, Kim CA, Leask K, Maisenbacher M, Moran E, Pappas JG, Prontera P, de Ravel T, Fryns JP, Sweeney E, Fryer A, Unger S, Wilson LC, Lachman RS, Rimoin DL, Cohn DH, Krakow D, Robertson SP
J Med Genet 2007 Feb;44(2):89-98. Epub 2006 Jun 26 doi: 10.1136/jmg.2006.043687. PMID: 16801345Free PMC Article
Zhang D, Herring JA, Swaney SS, McClendon TB, Gao X, Browne RH, Rathjen KE, Johnston CE, Harris S, Cain NM, Wise CA
J Med Genet 2006 May;43(5):e24. doi: 10.1136/jmg.2005.038695. PMID: 16648377Free PMC Article
Baspinar O, Kilinc M, Balat A, Celkan MA, Coskun Y
Can J Cardiol 2005 Mar;21(3):299-301. PMID: 15776121
Gorincour G, Chotel F, Rudigoz RC, Guibal-Baggio AL, Berard J, Pracros JP, Guibaud L
Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2003 Dec;22(6):643-5. doi: 10.1002/uog.884. PMID: 14689540

Prognosis

Wilebski BJ, Alam A, Lambert RR, Douvoyiannis M
Am J Case Rep 2024 May 14;25:e943725. doi: 10.12659/AJCR.943725. PMID: 38741359Free PMC Article
Honcharuk EM, Jeans KA, Polk JL, Johnston CE
J Pediatr Orthop 2024 Aug 1;44(7):e604-e611. Epub 2024 Apr 26 doi: 10.1097/BPO.0000000000002711. PMID: 38666580
Kaissi AA, van Egmond-Fröhlich A, Ryabykh S, Ochirov P, Kenis V, Hofstaetter JG, Grill F, Ganger R, Kircher SG
Medicine (Baltimore) 2016 Dec;95(50):e5505. doi: 10.1097/MD.0000000000005505. PMID: 27977582Free PMC Article
Kulkarni ML, Mohammed Z, Kulkarni PM
Indian J Pediatr 2005 Dec;72(12):1053-4. PMID: 16388157
Malik P, Choudhry DK
Paediatr Anaesth 2002 Sep;12(7):632-6. doi: 10.1046/j.1460-9592.2002.00920.x. PMID: 12358662

Clinical prediction guides

Honcharuk EM, Jeans KA, Polk JL, Johnston CE
J Pediatr Orthop 2024 Aug 1;44(7):e604-e611. Epub 2024 Apr 26 doi: 10.1097/BPO.0000000000002711. PMID: 38666580
Sergeenko OM, Evsyukov AV, Filatov EY, Ryabykh SO, Burtsev AV, Gubin AV
Spine Deform 2023 Sep;11(5):1223-1238. Epub 2023 Apr 22 doi: 10.1007/s43390-023-00690-1. PMID: 37086364
Handa A, Grigelioniene G, Nishimura G
Radiographics 2023 May;43(5):e220067. doi: 10.1148/rg.220067. PMID: 37053103
Girisha KM, Bidchol AM, Graul-Neumann L, Gupta A, Hehr U, Lessel D, Nader S, Shah H, Wickert J, Kutsche K
BMC Med Genet 2016 Apr 6;17:27. doi: 10.1186/s12881-016-0290-6. PMID: 27048506Free PMC Article
Bicknell LS, Farrington-Rock C, Shafeghati Y, Rump P, Alanay Y, Alembik Y, Al-Madani N, Firth H, Karimi-Nejad MH, Kim CA, Leask K, Maisenbacher M, Moran E, Pappas JG, Prontera P, de Ravel T, Fryns JP, Sweeney E, Fryer A, Unger S, Wilson LC, Lachman RS, Rimoin DL, Cohn DH, Krakow D, Robertson SP
J Med Genet 2007 Feb;44(2):89-98. Epub 2006 Jun 26 doi: 10.1136/jmg.2006.043687. PMID: 16801345Free PMC Article

Recent systematic reviews

Marques LHS, Martins DV, Juares GL, Lorenzetti FTM, Monsanto RDC
Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2017 Oct;101:223-229. Epub 2017 Aug 22 doi: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2017.08.020. PMID: 28964299

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