U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Format

Send to:

Choose Destination

Lowe syndrome(OCRL)

MedGen UID:
18145
Concept ID:
C0028860
Disease or Syndrome
Synonyms: Lowe oculocerebrorenal syndrome; OCRL; Oculocerebrorenal Syndrome; Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate 5-phosphatase deficiency
SNOMED CT: Oculocerebrorenal dystrophy (79385002); Cerebro-oculorenal dystrophy (79385002); Lowe disease (79385002); Lowe syndrome (79385002); Oculocerebrorenal syndrome (79385002); Renal-oculocerebrodystrophy (79385002); Lowe-Terrey-MacLachlan syndrome (79385002); Lowe-Bickel syndrome (79385002); Oculocerebrorenal syndrome of Lowe (79385002)
Modes of inheritance:
X-linked recessive inheritance
MedGen UID:
375779
Concept ID:
C1845977
Finding
Source: Orphanet
A mode of inheritance that is observed for recessive traits related to a gene encoded on the X chromosome. In the context of medical genetics, X-linked recessive disorders manifest in males (who have one copy of the X chromosome and are thus hemizygotes), but generally not in female heterozygotes who have one mutant and one normal allele.
 
Gene (location): OCRL (Xq26.1)
 
Monarch Initiative: MONDO:0010645
OMIM®: 309000
Orphanet: ORPHA534

Disease characteristics

Excerpted from the GeneReview: Lowe Syndrome
Lowe syndrome (oculocerebrorenal syndrome) is characterized by involvement of the eyes, central nervous system, and kidneys. Dense congenital cataracts are found in all affected boys and infantile glaucoma in approximately 50%. All boys have impaired vision; corrected acuity is rarely better than 20/100. Generalized hypotonia is noted at birth and is of central (brain) origin. Deep tendon reflexes are usually absent. Hypotonia may slowly improve with age, but normal motor tone and strength are never achieved. Motor milestones are delayed. Almost all affected males have some degree of intellectual disability; 10%-25% function in the low-normal or borderline range, approximately 25% in the mild-to-moderate range, and 50%-65% in the severe-to-profound range of intellectual disability. Affected males have varying degrees of proximal renal tubular dysfunction of the Fanconi type, including low molecular-weight (LMW) proteinuria, aminoaciduria, bicarbonate wasting and renal tubular acidosis, phosphaturia with hypophosphatemia and renal rickets, hypercalciuria, sodium and potassium wasting, and polyuria. The features of symptomatic Fanconi syndrome do not usually become manifest until after the first few months of life, except for LMW proteinuria. Glomerulosclerosis associated with chronic tubular injury usually results in slowly progressive chronic renal failure and end-stage renal disease between the second and fourth decades of life. [from GeneReviews]
Authors:
Richard Alan Lewis  |  Robert L Nussbaum  |  Eileen D Brewer   view full author information

Additional descriptions

From OMIM
Lowe oculocerebrorenal syndrome (OCRL) is a rare X-linked multisystemic disorder characterized by the triad of congenital cataracts, severely impaired intellectual development, and renal tubular dysfunction with slowly progressive renal failure. Other features include postnatal growth retardation independent of kidney function, areflexia, nontender joint swelling, subcutaneous nodules, and arthropathy, which can be observed in about 50% of adult patients (review by Bokenkamp and Ludwig, 2016).  http://www.omim.org/entry/309000
From MedlinePlus Genetics
Lowe syndrome is a condition that primarily affects the eyes, brain, and kidneys. This disorder occurs almost exclusively in males.

Infants with Lowe syndrome are born with thick clouding of the lenses in both eyes (congenital cataracts), often with other eye abnormalities that can impair vision. About half of affected infants develop an eye disease called infantile glaucoma, which is characterized by increased pressure within the eyes.

Many individuals with Lowe syndrome have delayed development, and intellectual ability ranges from normal to severely impaired. Behavioral problems and seizures have also been reported in children with this condition. Most affected children have weak muscle tone from birth (neonatal hypotonia), which can contribute to feeding difficulties, problems with breathing, and delayed development of motor skills such as sitting, standing, and walking.

Kidney (renal) abnormalities, most commonly a condition known as renal Fanconi syndrome, frequently develop in individuals with Lowe syndrome. The kidneys play an essential role in maintaining the right amounts of minerals, salts, water, and other substances in the body. In individuals with renal Fanconi syndrome, the kidneys are unable to reabsorb important nutrients into the bloodstream. Instead, the nutrients are excreted in the urine. These kidney problems lead to increased urination, dehydration, and abnormally acidic blood (metabolic acidosis). A loss of salts and nutrients may also impair growth and result in soft, bowed bones (hypophosphatemic rickets), especially in the legs. Progressive kidney problems in older children and adults with Lowe syndrome can lead to life-threatening renal failure and end-stage renal disease (ESRD).  https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/lowe-syndrome

Clinical features

From HPO
Cryptorchidism
MedGen UID:
8192
Concept ID:
C0010417
Congenital Abnormality
Cryptorchidism, or failure of testicular descent, is a common human congenital abnormality with a multifactorial etiology that likely reflects the involvement of endocrine, environmental, and hereditary factors. Cryptorchidism can result in infertility and increases risk for testicular tumors. Testicular descent from abdomen to scrotum occurs in 2 distinct phases: the transabdominal phase and the inguinoscrotal phase (summary by Gorlov et al., 2002).
Aminoaciduria
MedGen UID:
116067
Concept ID:
C0238621
Disease or Syndrome
An increased concentration of an amino acid in the urine.
Hyperphosphaturia
MedGen UID:
78638
Concept ID:
C0268079
Disease or Syndrome
An increased excretion of phosphates in the urine.
Renal insufficiency
MedGen UID:
332529
Concept ID:
C1565489
Disease or Syndrome
A reduction in the level of performance of the kidneys in areas of function comprising the concentration of urine, removal of wastes, the maintenance of electrolyte balance, homeostasis of blood pressure, and calcium metabolism.
Low-molecular-weight proteinuria
MedGen UID:
333360
Concept ID:
C1839606
Finding
Excretion in urine of proteins of a size smaller than albumin (molecular weight 69 kD).
Bicarbonaturia
MedGen UID:
326596
Concept ID:
C1839865
Finding
Abnormally increased concentration of hydrogencarbonate in the urine.
Primary Fanconi syndrome
MedGen UID:
341765
Concept ID:
C1857395
Disease or Syndrome
An inability of the tubules in the kidney to reabsorb small molecules, causing increased urinary loss of electrolytes (sodium, potassium, bicarbonate), minerals, glucose, amino acids, and water.
Stage 5 chronic kidney disease
MedGen UID:
384526
Concept ID:
C2316810
Disease or Syndrome
A degree of kidney failure severe enough to require dialysis or kidney transplantation for survival characterized by a severe reduction in glomerular filtration rate (less than 15 ml/min/1.73 m2) and other manifestations including increased serum creatinine.
Finger swelling
MedGen UID:
65989
Concept ID:
C0239598
Finding
Enlargement of the soft tissues of one or more fingers.
Wrist swelling
MedGen UID:
116125
Concept ID:
C0241760
Finding
Genu valgum
MedGen UID:
154364
Concept ID:
C0576093
Anatomical Abnormality
The legs angle inward, such that the knees are close together and the ankles far apart.
Short stature
MedGen UID:
87607
Concept ID:
C0349588
Finding
A height below that which is expected according to age and gender norms. Although there is no universally accepted definition of short stature, many refer to "short stature" as height more than 2 standard deviations below the mean for age and gender (or below the 3rd percentile for age and gender dependent norms).
Postnatal growth retardation
MedGen UID:
395343
Concept ID:
C1859778
Finding
Slow or limited growth after birth.
Failure to thrive
MedGen UID:
746019
Concept ID:
C2315100
Disease or Syndrome
Failure to thrive (FTT) refers to a child whose physical growth is substantially below the norm.
Constipation
MedGen UID:
1101
Concept ID:
C0009806
Sign or Symptom
Infrequent or difficult evacuation of feces.
Aggressive behavior
MedGen UID:
1375
Concept ID:
C0001807
Individual Behavior
Behavior or an act aimed at harming a person, animal, or physical property (e.g., acts of physical violence; shouting, swearing, and using harsh language; slashing someone's tires).
Seizure
MedGen UID:
20693
Concept ID:
C0036572
Sign or Symptom
A seizure is an intermittent abnormality of nervous system physiology characterized by a transient occurrence of signs and/or symptoms due to abnormal excessive or synchronous neuronal activity in the brain.
Motor stereotypies
MedGen UID:
21318
Concept ID:
C0038271
Individual Behavior
Use of the same abnormal action in response to certain triggers or at random. They may be used as a way to regulate one's internal state but must otherwise have no apparent functional purpose.
Areflexia
MedGen UID:
115943
Concept ID:
C0234146
Finding
Absence of neurologic reflexes such as the knee-jerk reaction.
Global developmental delay
MedGen UID:
107838
Concept ID:
C0557874
Finding
A delay in the achievement of motor or mental milestones in the domains of development of a child, including motor skills, speech and language, cognitive skills, and social and emotional skills. This term should only be used to describe children younger than five years of age.
Periventricular cysts
MedGen UID:
326980
Concept ID:
C1839858
Finding
Ventriculomegaly
MedGen UID:
480553
Concept ID:
C3278923
Finding
An increase in size of the ventricular system of the brain.
Intellectual disability
MedGen UID:
811461
Concept ID:
C3714756
Mental or Behavioral Dysfunction
Intellectual disability, previously referred to as mental retardation, is characterized by subnormal intellectual functioning that occurs during the developmental period. It is defined by an IQ score below 70.
Pathologic fracture
MedGen UID:
42095
Concept ID:
C0016663
Pathologic Function
A pathologic fracture occurs when a bone breaks in an area that is weakened secondarily to another disease process such as tumor, infection, and certain inherited bone disorders. A pathologic fracture can occur without a degree of trauma required to cause fracture in healthy bone.
Hip dislocation
MedGen UID:
42455
Concept ID:
C0019554
Injury or Poisoning
Displacement of the femur from its normal location in the hip joint.
Keloid
MedGen UID:
7197
Concept ID:
C0022548
Acquired Abnormality
An irregularly shaped, elevated mark on the skin caused by deposits of excessive amounts of collagen during wound healing. It extends beyond the original boundaries of the wound and may enlarge progressively.
Kyphosis
MedGen UID:
44042
Concept ID:
C0022821
Anatomical Abnormality
Exaggerated anterior convexity of the thoracic vertebral column.
Hypotonia
MedGen UID:
10133
Concept ID:
C0026827
Finding
Hypotonia is an abnormally low muscle tone (the amount of tension or resistance to movement in a muscle). Even when relaxed, muscles have a continuous and passive partial contraction which provides some resistance to passive stretching. Hypotonia thus manifests as diminished resistance to passive stretching. Hypotonia is not the same as muscle weakness, although the two conditions can co-exist.
Osteomalacia
MedGen UID:
14533
Concept ID:
C0029442
Disease or Syndrome
Osteomalacia is a general term for bone weakness owing to a defect in mineralization of the protein framework known as osteoid. This defective mineralization is mainly caused by lack in vitamin D. Osteomalacia in children is known as rickets.
Rickets
MedGen UID:
48470
Concept ID:
C0035579
Disease or Syndrome
Rickets is divided into two major categories including calcipenic and phosphopenic. Hypophosphatemia is described as a common manifestation of both categories. Hypophosphatemic rickets is the most common type of rickets that is characterized by low levels of serum phosphate, resistance to ultraviolet radiation or vitamin D intake. There are several issues involved in hypophosphatemic rickets such as calcium, vitamin D, phosphorus deficiencies. Moreover, other disorder can be associated with its occurrence such as absorption defects due to pancreatic, intestinal, gastric, and renal disorders and hepatobiliary disease. Symptoms are usually seen in childhood and can be varied in severity. Severe forms may be linked to bowing of the legs, poor bone growth, and short stature as well as joint and bone pain. Hypophosphatemic rickets are associated with renal excretion of phosphate, hypophosphatemia, and mineral defects in bones. The familial type of the disease is the most common type of rickets.
Scoliosis
MedGen UID:
11348
Concept ID:
C0036439
Disease or Syndrome
The presence of an abnormal lateral curvature of the spine.
Joint contracture of the hand
MedGen UID:
56382
Concept ID:
C0158113
Finding
Contractures of one ore more joints of the hands meaning chronic loss of joint motion due to structural changes in non-bony tissue.
Corneal scarring
MedGen UID:
83899
Concept ID:
C0349702
Finding
Replacement of corneal tissue with scar tissue as a result of injury to the deeper layers of the cornea.
Camptodactyly of finger
MedGen UID:
98041
Concept ID:
C0409348
Finding
The distal interphalangeal joint and/or the proximal interphalangeal joint of the fingers cannot be extended to 180 degrees by either active or passive extension.
Platyspondyly
MedGen UID:
335010
Concept ID:
C1844704
Finding
A flattened vertebral body shape with reduced distance between the vertebral endplates.
Joint hypermobility
MedGen UID:
336793
Concept ID:
C1844820
Finding
The capability that a joint (or a group of joints) has to move, passively and/or actively, beyond normal limits along physiological axes.
Neonatal hypotonia
MedGen UID:
412209
Concept ID:
C2267233
Disease or Syndrome
Muscular hypotonia (abnormally low muscle tone) manifesting in the neonatal period.
Hypercholesterolemia
MedGen UID:
5687
Concept ID:
C0020443
Disease or Syndrome
An increased concentration of cholesterol in the blood.
Elevated circulating creatine kinase concentration
MedGen UID:
69128
Concept ID:
C0241005
Finding
An elevation of the level of the enzyme creatine kinase (also known as creatine phosphokinase (CK; EC 2.7.3.2) in the blood. CK levels can be elevated in a number of clinical disorders such as myocardial infarction, rhabdomyolysis, and muscular dystrophy.
Proximal renal tubular acidosis
MedGen UID:
82804
Concept ID:
C0268435
Disease or Syndrome
A type of renal tubular acidosis characterized by a failure of the proximal tubular cells to reabsorb bicarbonate, leading to urinary bicarbonate wasting and subsequent acidemia.
Elevated amniotic fluid alpha-fetoprotein
MedGen UID:
333423
Concept ID:
C1839860
Finding
An elevation of alpha-feto protein measured in the amniotic fluid.
Increased circulating lactate dehydrogenase concentration
MedGen UID:
1377250
Concept ID:
C4477095
Finding
An elevated level of the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase in the blood circulation.
Reduced Inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase OCRL-1 activity in cultured fibroblasts
MedGen UID:
1054894
Concept ID:
CN377447
Finding
Concentration or activity of inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase OCRL-1 as measured in cultured fibroblasts is below the limits of normal. This enzyme has phosphoinositide 5-phosphatase (EC 3.1.3.36) activity.
Enamel hypoplasia
MedGen UID:
3730
Concept ID:
C0011351
Disease or Syndrome
Developmental hypoplasia of the dental enamel.
Subcutaneous nodule
MedGen UID:
101803
Concept ID:
C0151811
Pathologic Function
Slightly elevated lesions on or in the skin with a diameter of over 5 mm.
Developmental cataract
MedGen UID:
3202
Concept ID:
C0009691
Congenital Abnormality
A cataract that occurs congenitally as the result of a developmental defect, in contrast to the majority of cataracts that occur in adulthood as the result of degenerative changes of the lens.
Glaucoma
MedGen UID:
42224
Concept ID:
C0017601
Disease or Syndrome
Glaucoma refers loss of retinal ganglion cells in a characteristic pattern of optic neuropathy usually associated with increased intraocular pressure.
Microphthalmia
MedGen UID:
10033
Concept ID:
C0026010
Congenital Abnormality
Microphthalmia is an eye abnormality that arises before birth. In this condition, one or both eyeballs are abnormally small. In some affected individuals, the eyeball may appear to be completely missing; however, even in these cases some remaining eye tissue is generally present. Such severe microphthalmia should be distinguished from another condition called anophthalmia, in which no eyeball forms at all. However, the terms anophthalmia and severe microphthalmia are often used interchangeably. Microphthalmia may or may not result in significant vision loss.\n\nPeople with microphthalmia may also have a condition called coloboma. Colobomas are missing pieces of tissue in structures that form the eye. They may appear as notches or gaps in the colored part of the eye called the iris; the retina, which is the specialized light-sensitive tissue that lines the back of the eye; the blood vessel layer under the retina called the choroid; or in the optic nerves, which carry information from the eyes to the brain. Colobomas may be present in one or both eyes and, depending on their size and location, can affect a person's vision.\n\nPeople with microphthalmia may also have other eye abnormalities, including clouding of the lens of the eye (cataract) and a narrowed opening of the eye (narrowed palpebral fissure). Additionally, affected individuals may have an abnormality called microcornea, in which the clear front covering of the eye (cornea) is small and abnormally curved.\n\nBetween one-third and one-half of affected individuals have microphthalmia as part of a syndrome that affects other organs and tissues in the body. These forms of the condition are described as syndromic. When microphthalmia occurs by itself, it is described as nonsyndromic or isolated.
Reduced visual acuity
MedGen UID:
65889
Concept ID:
C0234632
Finding
Diminished clarity of vision.
Visual impairment
MedGen UID:
777085
Concept ID:
C3665347
Finding
Visual impairment (or vision impairment) is vision loss (of a person) to such a degree as to qualify as an additional support need through a significant limitation of visual capability resulting from either disease, trauma, or congenital or degenerative conditions that cannot be corrected by conventional means, such as refractive correction, medication, or surgery.
Dense posterior cortical cataract
MedGen UID:
870324
Concept ID:
C4024767
Finding
A type of posterior cortical cataract characterized by dense lenticular opacities.
Elevated serum acid phosphatase
MedGen UID:
326597
Concept ID:
C1839866
Finding

Term Hierarchy

CClinical test,  RResearch test,  OOMIM,  GGeneReviews,  VClinVar  
Follow this link to review classifications for Lowe syndrome in Orphanet.

Professional guidelines

PubMed

Ramadesikan S, Skiba L, Lee J, Madhivanan K, Sarkar D, De La Fuente A, Hanna CB, Terashi G, Hazbun T, Kihara D, Aguilar RC
Hum Mol Genet 2021 Apr 26;30(3-4):198-212. doi: 10.1093/hmg/ddab025. PMID: 33517444Free PMC Article
Arora V, Anand K, Chander Verma I
Indian J Pediatr 2020 Sep;87(9):706-715. Epub 2020 Feb 13 doi: 10.1007/s12098-020-03198-y. PMID: 32056192
Bökenkamp A, Levtchenko E, Recker F, Ludwig M
Eur J Hum Genet 2015 Jun;23(6):889-. Epub 2014 Sep 3 doi: 10.1038/ejhg.2014.177. PMID: 25182134Free PMC Article

Recent clinical studies

Etiology

Lowenstein A, Swee G, Finkelman MD, Tesini D, Loo CY
Spec Care Dentist 2024 Mar-Apr;44(2):502-512. Epub 2023 May 2 doi: 10.1111/scd.12870. PMID: 37128874
Zhang L, Wang S, Mao R, Fu H, Wang J, Shen H, Lu Z, Chen J, Bao Y, Feng C, Lai EY, Ye Q, Mao J
Genet Res (Camb) 2022;2022:1473260. Epub 2022 Jul 19 doi: 10.1155/2022/1473260. PMID: 35919034Free PMC Article
Ma X, Ning K, Jabbehdari S, Prosseda PP, Hu Y, Shue A, Lambert SR, Sun Y
Eur J Ophthalmol 2020 Sep;30(5):966-973. Epub 2020 Apr 27 doi: 10.1177/1120672120920544. PMID: 32340490Free PMC Article
Finer G, Landau D
Adv Chronic Kidney Dis 2018 Jul;25(4):351-357. doi: 10.1053/j.ackd.2018.05.006. PMID: 30139461
Staiano L, De Leo MG, Persico M, De Matteis MA
Biochim Biophys Acta 2015 Jun;1851(6):867-81. Epub 2014 Dec 12 doi: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2014.12.001. PMID: 25510381

Diagnosis

Martin GC, Putterman M, Dureau P
Ophthalmology 2022 Jun;129(6):625. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2021.12.006. PMID: 35598901
Foreman JW
Pediatr Clin North Am 2019 Feb;66(1):159-167. doi: 10.1016/j.pcl.2018.09.002. PMID: 30454741
Bökenkamp A, Ludwig M
Pediatr Nephrol 2016 Dec;31(12):2201-2212. Epub 2016 Mar 24 doi: 10.1007/s00467-016-3343-3. PMID: 27011217Free PMC Article
Devuyst O, Thakker RV
Orphanet J Rare Dis 2010 Oct 14;5:28. doi: 10.1186/1750-1172-5-28. PMID: 20946626Free PMC Article
Loi M
Orphanet J Rare Dis 2006 May 18;1:16. doi: 10.1186/1750-1172-1-16. PMID: 16722554Free PMC Article

Therapy

Okamoto T, Sakakibara N, Nozu K, Takahashi T, Hayashi A, Sato Y, Nagano C, Matsuo M, Iijima K, Manabe A
Clin Exp Nephrol 2020 Oct;24(10):946-954. Epub 2020 Jul 14 doi: 10.1007/s10157-020-01926-4. PMID: 32666344
Zheng B, Chen Q, Wang C, Zhou W, Chen Y, Ding G, Jia Z, Zhang A, Huang S
Mol Genet Genomic Med 2019 Sep;7(9):e876. Epub 2019 Aug 3 doi: 10.1002/mgg3.876. PMID: 31376231Free PMC Article
Dahlin A, Wittwer M, de la Cruz M, Woo JM, Bam R, Scharen-Guivel V, Flaherty J, Ray AS, Cihlar T, Gupta SK, Giacomini KM
Pharmacogenet Genomics 2015 Feb;25(2):82-92. doi: 10.1097/FPC.0000000000000110. PMID: 25485598Free PMC Article
Hou JW
J Formos Med Assoc 2009 Sep;108(9):730-5. doi: 10.1016/S0929-6646(09)60397-1. PMID: 19773212
Rodrigues Santos MT, Watanabe MM, Manzano FS, Lopes CH, Masiero D
Spec Care Dentist 2007 May-Jun;27(3):108-11. doi: 10.1111/j.1754-4505.2007.tb01750.x. PMID: 17658186

Prognosis

Kiely C, Douglas KAA, Douglas VP, Miller JB, Lizano P
Psychiatry Res 2024 Jan;331:115629. Epub 2023 Nov 25 doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2023.115629. PMID: 38029629Free PMC Article
Arora V, Anand K, Chander Verma I
Indian J Pediatr 2020 Sep;87(9):706-715. Epub 2020 Feb 13 doi: 10.1007/s12098-020-03198-y. PMID: 32056192
Recker F, Zaniew M, Böckenhauer D, Miglietti N, Bökenkamp A, Moczulska A, Rogowska-Kalisz A, Laube G, Said-Conti V, Kasap-Demir B, Niemirska A, Litwin M, Siteń G, Chrzanowska KH, Krajewska-Walasek M, Sethi SK, Tasic V, Anglani F, Addis M, Wasilewska A, Szczepańska M, Pawlaczyk K, Sikora P, Ludwig M
Pediatr Nephrol 2015 Jun;30(6):931-43. Epub 2014 Dec 6 doi: 10.1007/s00467-014-3013-2. PMID: 25480730
Devuyst O, Thakker RV
Orphanet J Rare Dis 2010 Oct 14;5:28. doi: 10.1186/1750-1172-5-28. PMID: 20946626Free PMC Article
Loi M
Orphanet J Rare Dis 2006 May 18;1:16. doi: 10.1186/1750-1172-1-16. PMID: 16722554Free PMC Article

Clinical prediction guides

Lowenstein A, Swee G, Finkelman MD, Tesini D, Loo CY
Spec Care Dentist 2024 Mar-Apr;44(2):502-512. Epub 2023 May 2 doi: 10.1111/scd.12870. PMID: 37128874
Huang L, Zhang Y, Fu H, Gu W, Mao J
Cell Commun Signal 2023 Dec 5;21(1):256. doi: 10.1186/s12964-023-01272-4. PMID: 38049819Free PMC Article
Sakakibara N, Ijuin T, Horinouchi T, Yamamura T, Nagano C, Okada E, Ishiko S, Aoto Y, Rossanti R, Ninchoji T, Awano H, Nagase H, Minamikawa S, Tanaka R, Matsuyama T, Nagatani K, Kamei K, Jinnouchi K, Ohtsuka Y, Oka M, Araki Y, Tanaka T, Harada MS, Igarashi T, Kitahara H, Morisada N, Nakamura SI, Okada T, Iijima K, Nozu K
Nephrol Dial Transplant 2022 Jan 25;37(2):262-270. doi: 10.1093/ndt/gfab274. PMID: 34586410
Madhivanan K, Ramadesikan S, Hsieh WC, Aguilar MC, Hanna CB, Bacallao RL, Aguilar RC
Hum Mol Genet 2020 Jun 27;29(10):1700-1715. doi: 10.1093/hmg/ddaa086. PMID: 32391547Free PMC Article
Pirruccello M, De Camilli P
Trends Biochem Sci 2012 Apr;37(4):134-43. Epub 2012 Feb 28 doi: 10.1016/j.tibs.2012.01.002. PMID: 22381590Free PMC Article

Supplemental Content

Table of contents

    Clinical resources

    Practice guidelines

    • PubMed
      See practice and clinical guidelines in PubMed. The search results may include broader topics and may not capture all published guidelines. See the FAQ for details.
    • Bookshelf
      See practice and clinical guidelines in NCBI Bookshelf. The search results may include broader topics and may not capture all published guidelines. See the FAQ for details.

    Recent activity

    Your browsing activity is empty.

    Activity recording is turned off.

    Turn recording back on

    See more...