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Clonic seizure

MedGen UID:
66708
Concept ID:
C0234535
Disease or Syndrome
Synonyms: Clonic Seizure; Clonic Seizures; Seizure, Clonic; Seizures, Clonic
SNOMED CT: Clonic seizure (192991000); Clonic epileptic seizure (192991000)
 
HPO: HP:0020221

Definition

A clonic seizure is a type of motor seizure characterized by sustained rhythmic jerking, that is regularly repetitive. [from HPO]

Conditions with this feature

Hyperammonemia, type III
MedGen UID:
120649
Concept ID:
C0268543
Disease or Syndrome
N-acetylglutamate synthase deficiency (NAGSD) is an autosomal recessive disorder of the urea cycle. The clinical and biochemical features of the disorder are indistinguishable from carbamoyl phosphate synthase I deficiency (237300), since the CPS1 enzyme (608307) has an absolute requirement for NAGS (Caldovic et al., 2007).
Pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy
MedGen UID:
340341
Concept ID:
C1849508
Disease or Syndrome
Pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy – ALDH7A1 (PDE-ALDH7A1) is characterized by seizures not well controlled with anti-seizure medication that are responsive clinically and electrographically to large daily supplements of pyridoxine (vitamin B6). This is true across a phenotypic spectrum that ranges from classic to atypical PDE-ALDH7A1. Intellectual disability is common, particularly in classic PDE-ALDH7A1. Classic PDE-ALDH7A1. Untreated seizures begin within the first weeks to months of life. Dramatic presentations of prolonged seizures and recurrent episodes of status epilepticus are typical; recurrent self-limited events including partial seizures, generalized seizures, atonic seizures, myoclonic events, and infantile spasms also occur. Electrographic seizures can occur without clinical correlates. Atypical PDE-ALDH7A1. Findings in untreated individuals can include late-onset seizures beginning between late infancy and age three years, seizures that initially respond to anti-seizure medication and then become intractable, seizures during early life that do not respond to pyridoxine but are subsequently controlled with pyridoxine several months later, and prolonged seizure-free intervals (=5 months) that occur after discontinuation of pyridoxine.
Gaucher disease due to saposin C deficiency
MedGen UID:
350479
Concept ID:
C1864651
Disease or Syndrome
Any Gaucher disease in which the cause of the disease is a mutation in the PSAP gene.
Childhood encephalopathy due to thiamine pyrophosphokinase deficiency
MedGen UID:
482496
Concept ID:
C3280866
Disease or Syndrome
Thiamine metabolism dysfunction syndrome-5 (THMD5) is an autosomal recessive metabolic disorder due to an inborn error of thiamine metabolism. The phenotype is highly variable, but in general, affected individuals have onset in early childhood of acute encephalopathic episodes associated with increased serum and CSF lactate. These episodes result in progressive neurologic dysfunction manifest as gait disturbances, ataxia, dystonia, and spasticity, which in some cases may result in loss of ability to walk. Cognitive function is usually preserved, although mildly delayed development has been reported. These episodes are usually associated with infection and metabolic decompensation. Some patients may have recovery of some neurologic deficits (Mayr et al., 2011). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of disorders due to thiamine metabolism dysfunction, see THMD1 (249270).
Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy, 13
MedGen UID:
482821
Concept ID:
C3281191
Disease or Syndrome
SCN8A-related epilepsy with encephalopathy is characterized by developmental delay, seizure onset in the first 18 months of life (mean 4 months), and intractable epilepsy characterized by multiple seizure types (generalized tonic-clonic seizures, infantile spasms, and absence and focal seizures). Epilepsy syndromes can include Lennox-Gastaut syndrome, West syndrome, and epileptic encephalopathies (e.g., Dravet syndrome). Hypotonia and movement disorders including dystonia, ataxia, and choreoathetosis are common. Psychomotor development varies from normal prior to seizure onset (with subsequent slowing or regression after seizure onset) to abnormal from birth. Intellectual disability, present in all, ranges from mild to severe (in ~50% of affected individuals). Autistic features are noted in some. Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) of unknown cause has been reported in approximately 10% of published cases. To date SCN8A-related epilepsy with encephalopathy has been reported in the literature in about 50 individuals.
Complex cortical dysplasia with other brain malformations 2
MedGen UID:
815343
Concept ID:
C3809013
Disease or Syndrome
Any complex cortical dysplasia with other brain malformations in which the cause of the disease is a mutation in the KIF5C gene.
Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy, 16
MedGen UID:
815503
Concept ID:
C3809173
Disease or Syndrome
TBC1D24-related disorders comprise a continuum of features that were originally described as distinct, recognized phenotypes: DOORS syndrome (deafness, onychodystrophy, osteodystrophy, mental retardation, and seizures). Profound sensorineural hearing loss, onychodystrophy, osteodystrophy, intellectual disability / developmental delay, and seizures. Familial infantile myoclonic epilepsy (FIME). Early-onset myoclonic seizures, focal epilepsy, dysarthria, and mild-to-moderate intellectual disability. Progressive myoclonus epilepsy (PME). Action myoclonus, tonic-clonic seizures, progressive neurologic decline, and ataxia. Early-infantile epileptic encephalopathy 16 (EIEE16). Epileptiform EEG abnormalities which themselves are believed to contribute to progressive disturbance in cerebral function. Autosomal recessive nonsyndromic hearing loss, DFNB86. Profound prelingual deafness. Autosomal dominant nonsyndromic hearing loss, DFNA65. Slowly progressive deafness with onset in the third decade, initially affecting the high frequencies.
Congenital microcephaly - severe encephalopathy - progressive cerebral atrophy syndrome
MedGen UID:
816301
Concept ID:
C3809971
Disease or Syndrome
Asparagine synthetase deficiency (ASD) mainly presents as a triad of congenital microcephaly, severe developmental delay, and axial hypotonia followed by spastic quadriplegia. Low cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) asparagine level can help the clinician in differentiating this disorder from others. In most cases age of onset of apnea, excessive irritability, and seizures is soon after birth. Affected individuals typically do not acquire any developmental milestones. Spastic quadriplegia can lead to severe contractures of the limbs and neurogenic scoliosis. Feeding difficulties (gastroesophageal reflux disease, frequent vomiting, swallowing dysfunction, and gastroesophageal incoordination) are a significant problem in most affected individuals. A majority have cortical blindness. MRI findings are nonspecific but may include generalized atrophy and simplified gyral pattern.
Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy, 24
MedGen UID:
862968
Concept ID:
C4014531
Disease or Syndrome
Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy-24 (DEE24) is a neurologic disorder characterized by onset of refractory seizures in infancy, severely impaired global development, intellectual disability, and behavioral abnormalities. Most patients have onset of variable types of seizures between 4 and 13 months of age, but earlier onset in the first days of life has also been reported. Seizures are often triggered by fever, at least initially; status epilepticus may occur (summary by Nava et al., 2014 and Marini et al., 2018). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of DEE, see 308350.
Epilepsy, early-onset, vitamin B6-dependent
MedGen UID:
934599
Concept ID:
C4310632
Disease or Syndrome
Early-onset vitamin B6-dependent epilepsy-1 (EPEO1) is an autosomal recessive neurologic disorder characterized by onset of seizures in the neonatal period or first months of life. The seizures show favorable response to treatment with activated vitamin B6 (pyridoxal 5-prime-phosphate; PLP) and/or pyridoxine. However, most patients show delayed psychomotor development (Darin et al., 2016). Genetic Heterogeneity of Early-Onset Epilepsy EPEO2 (618832) is caused by mutation in the SETD1A gene (611052) on chromosome 16p11. EPEO3 (620465) is caused by mutation in the ATP6V0C gene (108745) on chromosome 16p13. EPEO4 (266100) is caused by mutation in the ALDH7A1 gene (107323) on chromosome 5q23. EPEO5 (615400) is caused by mutation in the CNTN2 gene (190197) on chromosome 1q32.
Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy, 49
MedGen UID:
934602
Concept ID:
C4310635
Disease or Syndrome
Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy-49 (DEE49) is a severe autosomal recessive neurologic disorder characterized by onset of seizures in the neonatal period, global developmental delay with intellectual disability and lack of speech, hypotonia, spasticity, and coarse facial features. Some patients may have brain calcifications on imaging (summary by Han et al., 2016). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of DEE, see 308350.
Myoclonus, intractable, neonatal
MedGen UID:
934625
Concept ID:
C4310658
Disease or Syndrome
Neonatal intractable myoclonus (NEIMY) is a severe neurologic disorder characterized by the onset of intractable myoclonic seizures soon after birth. Affected infants have intermittent apnea, abnormal eye movements, pallor of the optic nerve, and lack of developmental progress. Brain imaging shows a progressive leukoencephalopathy. Some patients may die in infancy. There is phenotypic and biochemical evidence of mitochondrial dysfunction (summary by Duis et al., 2016).
Epilepsy, familial focal, with variable foci 4
MedGen UID:
1644614
Concept ID:
C4693694
Disease or Syndrome
SCN3A-related neurodevelopmental disorder (SCN3A-ND) encompasses a spectrum of clinical severity associated with epilepsy and/or brain malformation. Affected individuals may have (a) developmental and epileptic encephalopathy (DEE) (i.e., intractable seizures with developmental delays associated with ongoing epileptiform EEG activity) with or without malformations of cortical development; or (b) malformations of cortical development with or without mild focal epilepsy. Some degree of early childhood developmental delay is seen in all affected individuals; the severity varies widely, ranging from isolated speech delay to severe developmental delay. Infantile hypotonia is common but may be mild or absent in those without DEE. In those with DEE, seizure onset is typically in the first six to 12 months of life. A variety of seizure types have been described. Seizures remain intractable to multiple anti-seizure medications in approximately 50% of individuals with DEE without malformations of cortical development (MCD) and in 90% of individuals with DEE and MCD. Seizures may be absent or infrequent in those without DEE. Brain MRI findings range from normal to showing thinning or hypoplasia of the corpus callosum, to various malformations of cortical development. Autonomic dysregulation, oromotor dysfunction leading to the need for gastrostomy tube placement, progressive microcephaly, hyperkinetic movement disorder, and cortical visual impairment can also be seen in those with DEE.
Epileptic encephalopathy, infantile or early childhood, 3
MedGen UID:
1642888
Concept ID:
C4693934
Disease or Syndrome
Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy (DEE93) is an autosomal dominant neurologic disorder characterized by delayed psychomotor development, early-onset refractory seizures, and impaired intellectual development. The severity of the phenotype is highly variable: some patients may be nonverbal and nonambulatory with spastic quadriparesis and poor eye contact, whereas others have moderate intellectual disability (summary by Fassio et al., 2018). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of DEE, see 308350.
Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy, 66
MedGen UID:
1648486
Concept ID:
C4748070
Disease or Syndrome
Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy-66 (DEE66) is a neurologic disorder characterized by the onset of various types of seizures in the first days or weeks of life. Most seizures have focal origins; secondary generalization is common. Seizure control is difficult at first, but may become easier with time. Affected individuals show global developmental delay with hypotonia, behavioral abnormalities, and dysmorphic features or ophthalmologic defects. Brain imaging often shows cerebellar dysgenesis. A subset of patients have extraneurologic manifestations, including hematologic and distal limb abnormalities (summary by Olson et al., 2018). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of DEE, see 308350.
Neurodevelopmental disorder with language impairment and behavioral abnormalities
MedGen UID:
1708389
Concept ID:
C5394502
Disease or Syndrome
Neurodevelopmental disorder with speech impairment and behavioral abnormalities (NEDLIB) is characterized by impaired intellectual development or developmental delay, behavioral abnormalities including autistic features, and language impairment. Other features include seizures and developmental regression (Salpietro et al., 2019).
Episodic ataxia, type 9
MedGen UID:
1714171
Concept ID:
C5394520
Disease or Syndrome
Episodic ataxia type 9 (EA9) is a neurologic disorder characterized by onset of ataxic episodes in the first years of life. Features may include difficulty walking, dizziness, slurred speech, headache, vomiting, and pain. The ataxic episodes vary in frequency and duration; most tend to occur every few weeks or months and last minutes to hours. Prior to the EA, most patients have neonatal- or infantile-onset tonic or generalized tonic-clonic (GTC) seizures that may be severe and refractory to medication, but remit later in infancy or early childhood, either spontaneously or concurrently with medication. Some patients have mildly delayed development with speech delay and/or autistic features or mildly impaired intellectual development. However, others show normal psychomotor development. Treatment of the ataxic episodes with acetazolamide is effective in about 50% of patients (summary by Schwarz et al., 2019). For a phenotypic description and discussion of genetic heterogeneity of episodic ataxia, see EA1 (160120).
Developmental delay, impaired speech, and behavioral abnormalities
MedGen UID:
1794167
Concept ID:
C5561957
Disease or Syndrome
Developmental delay, impaired speech, and behavioral abnormalities (DDISBA) is characterized by global developmental delay apparent from early childhood. Intellectual disability can range from mild to severe. Additional variable features may include dysmorphic facial features, seizures, hypotonia, motor abnormalities such as Tourette syndrome or dystonia, and hearing loss (summary by Cousin et al., 2021).
Neurodevelopmental disorder with impaired language and ataxia and with or without seizures
MedGen UID:
1794216
Concept ID:
C5562006
Disease or Syndrome
Neurodevelopmental disorder with impaired language and ataxia and with or without seizures (NEDLAS) is characterized by axial hypotonia and global developmental delay apparent in early infancy. Affected individuals have delayed walking with gait ataxia and poor language development. Behavioral abnormalities also commonly occur. The severity is highly variable: a subset of patients have a more severe phenotype with early-onset seizures resembling epileptic encephalopathy, inability to walk or speak, and hypomyelination on brain imaging (summary by Stolz et al., 2021).
Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy 98
MedGen UID:
1794227
Concept ID:
C5562017
Disease or Syndrome
Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy-98 (DEE98) is characterized by onset of seizures in the first decade (range infancy to late childhood) associated with variable global developmental delay. Other features may include hypotonia, spasticity, and quadriparesis. Brain imaging may be normal or show nonspecific and variable abnormalities, including polymicrogyria. The severity is variable; some patients may die of refractory status epilepticus (summary by Vetro et al., 2021). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of DEE, see 308350.
Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy 104
MedGen UID:
1823956
Concept ID:
C5774183
Disease or Syndrome
Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy-104 (DEE104) is an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by developmental delay in the first few months of life and drug-resistant focal and generalized tonic-clonic seizures (summary by Bott et al., 2021). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of DEE, see 308350.
Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy-107
MedGen UID:
1823988
Concept ID:
C5774215
Disease or Syndrome
Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy-107 (DEE107) is a severe autosomal recessive neurologic disorder characterized by onset of seizures in the first months of life and severe global developmental delay, profound intellectual disability, progressive microcephaly, and hypotonia (Conroy et al., 2016). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of DEE, see 308350.
Mitochondrial complex IV deficiency, nuclear type 23
MedGen UID:
1840958
Concept ID:
C5830322
Disease or Syndrome
Mitochondrial complex IV deficiency nuclear type 23 (MC4DN23) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by infantile-onset encephalopathy (Rius et al., 2022). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of mitochondrial complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase) deficiency, see 220110.
Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy, 31B
MedGen UID:
1841095
Concept ID:
C5830459
Disease or Syndrome
Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy-31B (DEE31B) is an autosomal recessive neurologic disorder with early-onset epilepsy, generalized muscular hypotonia, visual impairment, and severe neurodevelopmental delay (Yigit et al., 2022).
Encephalitis, acute, infection-induced, susceptibility to, 12
MedGen UID:
1846830
Concept ID:
C5882673
Finding
Infection-induced acute encephalitis-12 (IIAE12) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by episodic acute encephalopathy associated with infections and febrile illness. Patients present with neurologic symptoms in the first months or years of life, usually after normal early development. Brain imaging in the acute episodes shows restriction on diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) and T2-weighted abnormalities in the periventricular and subcortical regions, which progresses to cavitation of previously affected areas. The long-term outcome is highly variable, even within families, ranging from death to severe neurologic deficits to normal outcomes (Shashi et al., 2023). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of susceptibility to acute infection-induced encephalopathy, see 610551.
Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy 112
MedGen UID:
1845523
Concept ID:
C5882700
Disease or Syndrome
Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy-112 (DEE112) is an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by a wide range of seizure types, including focal and generalized seizures. Cognitive outcomes range from normal intellect to profound impairment (summary by Happ et al., 2023). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of DEE, see 308350.

Professional guidelines

PubMed

Fang C, Yang L, Xiao F, Yan K, Zhou W
Epilepsy Res 2024 May;202:107363. Epub 2024 Apr 17 doi: 10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2024.107363. PMID: 38636407
Villanueva V, Sánchez-Álvarez JC, Carreño M, Salas-Puig J, Caballero-Martínez F, Gil-Nagel A
Epilepsy Behav 2021 Jan;114(Pt A):107540. Epub 2020 Nov 24 doi: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2020.107540. PMID: 33243687
Thakran S, Guin D, Singh P, Singh P, Kukal S, Rawat C, Yadav S, Kushwaha SS, Srivastava AK, Hasija Y, Saso L, Ramachandran S, Kukreti R
Int J Mol Sci 2020 Oct 21;21(20) doi: 10.3390/ijms21207784. PMID: 33096746Free PMC Article

Recent clinical studies

Etiology

Knupp KG, Scheffer IE, Ceulemans B, Sullivan JE, Nickels KC, Lagae L, Guerrini R, Zuberi SM, Nabbout R, Riney K, Shore S, Agarwal A, Lock M, Farfel GM, Galer BS, Gammaitoni AR, Davis R, Gil-Nagel A
JAMA Neurol 2022 Jun 1;79(6):554-564. doi: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2022.0829. PMID: 35499850Free PMC Article
Thakran S, Guin D, Singh P, Singh P, Kukal S, Rawat C, Yadav S, Kushwaha SS, Srivastava AK, Hasija Y, Saso L, Ramachandran S, Kukreti R
Int J Mol Sci 2020 Oct 21;21(20) doi: 10.3390/ijms21207784. PMID: 33096746Free PMC Article
Dupont S
Geriatr Psychol Neuropsychiatr Vieil 2019 Mar 1;17(S1):25-30. doi: 10.1684/pnv.2019.0782. PMID: 30916648
Ryvlin P, Nashef L, Lhatoo SD, Bateman LM, Bird J, Bleasel A, Boon P, Crespel A, Dworetzky BA, Høgenhaven H, Lerche H, Maillard L, Malter MP, Marchal C, Murthy JM, Nitsche M, Pataraia E, Rabben T, Rheims S, Sadzot B, Schulze-Bonhage A, Seyal M, So EL, Spitz M, Szucs A, Tan M, Tao JX, Tomson T
Lancet Neurol 2013 Oct;12(10):966-77. Epub 2013 Sep 4 doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(13)70214-X. PMID: 24012372
Fisher RS
Ann Neurol 2012 Feb;71(2):157-68. doi: 10.1002/ana.22621. PMID: 22367987Free PMC Article

Diagnosis

Thakran S, Guin D, Singh P, Singh P, Kukal S, Rawat C, Yadav S, Kushwaha SS, Srivastava AK, Hasija Y, Saso L, Ramachandran S, Kukreti R
Int J Mol Sci 2020 Oct 21;21(20) doi: 10.3390/ijms21207784. PMID: 33096746Free PMC Article
Pack AM
Continuum (Minneap Minn) 2019 Apr;25(2):306-321. doi: 10.1212/CON.0000000000000707. PMID: 30921011
Dupont S
Geriatr Psychol Neuropsychiatr Vieil 2019 Mar 1;17(S1):25-30. doi: 10.1684/pnv.2019.0782. PMID: 30916648
Arends JBAM
Epilepsia 2018 Jun;59 Suppl 1:30-35. Epub 2018 Apr 9 doi: 10.1111/epi.14053. PMID: 29635767
Fisher RS, Cross JH, French JA, Higurashi N, Hirsch E, Jansen FE, Lagae L, Moshé SL, Peltola J, Roulet Perez E, Scheffer IE, Zuberi SM
Epilepsia 2017 Apr;58(4):522-530. Epub 2017 Mar 8 doi: 10.1111/epi.13670. PMID: 28276060

Therapy

Lu VM, Saad AG, Shah AH
JAMA Neurol 2023 Dec 1;80(12):1371-1372. doi: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2023.3739. PMID: 37870830
Knupp KG, Scheffer IE, Ceulemans B, Sullivan JE, Nickels KC, Lagae L, Guerrini R, Zuberi SM, Nabbout R, Riney K, Shore S, Agarwal A, Lock M, Farfel GM, Galer BS, Gammaitoni AR, Davis R, Gil-Nagel A
JAMA Neurol 2022 Jun 1;79(6):554-564. doi: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2022.0829. PMID: 35499850Free PMC Article
Dupont S
Geriatr Psychol Neuropsychiatr Vieil 2019 Mar 1;17(S1):25-30. doi: 10.1684/pnv.2019.0782. PMID: 30916648
Arends JBAM
Epilepsia 2018 Jun;59 Suppl 1:30-35. Epub 2018 Apr 9 doi: 10.1111/epi.14053. PMID: 29635767
Simonato M, Romualdi P
Prog Neurobiol 1996 Dec;50(5-6):557-83. doi: 10.1016/s0301-0082(96)00045-7. PMID: 9015827

Prognosis

Thakran S, Guin D, Singh P, Singh P, Kukal S, Rawat C, Yadav S, Kushwaha SS, Srivastava AK, Hasija Y, Saso L, Ramachandran S, Kukreti R
Int J Mol Sci 2020 Oct 21;21(20) doi: 10.3390/ijms21207784. PMID: 33096746Free PMC Article
Dupont S
Geriatr Psychol Neuropsychiatr Vieil 2019 Mar 1;17(S1):25-30. doi: 10.1684/pnv.2019.0782. PMID: 30916648
Arends JBAM
Epilepsia 2018 Jun;59 Suppl 1:30-35. Epub 2018 Apr 9 doi: 10.1111/epi.14053. PMID: 29635767
Ryvlin P, Nashef L, Lhatoo SD, Bateman LM, Bird J, Bleasel A, Boon P, Crespel A, Dworetzky BA, Høgenhaven H, Lerche H, Maillard L, Malter MP, Marchal C, Murthy JM, Nitsche M, Pataraia E, Rabben T, Rheims S, Sadzot B, Schulze-Bonhage A, Seyal M, So EL, Spitz M, Szucs A, Tan M, Tao JX, Tomson T
Lancet Neurol 2013 Oct;12(10):966-77. Epub 2013 Sep 4 doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(13)70214-X. PMID: 24012372
Fisher RS
Ann Neurol 2012 Feb;71(2):157-68. doi: 10.1002/ana.22621. PMID: 22367987Free PMC Article

Clinical prediction guides

Knupp KG, Scheffer IE, Ceulemans B, Sullivan JE, Nickels KC, Lagae L, Guerrini R, Zuberi SM, Nabbout R, Riney K, Shore S, Agarwal A, Lock M, Farfel GM, Galer BS, Gammaitoni AR, Davis R, Gil-Nagel A
JAMA Neurol 2022 Jun 1;79(6):554-564. doi: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2022.0829. PMID: 35499850Free PMC Article
Thakran S, Guin D, Singh P, Singh P, Kukal S, Rawat C, Yadav S, Kushwaha SS, Srivastava AK, Hasija Y, Saso L, Ramachandran S, Kukreti R
Int J Mol Sci 2020 Oct 21;21(20) doi: 10.3390/ijms21207784. PMID: 33096746Free PMC Article
Ryvlin P, Ciumas C, Wisniewski I, Beniczky S
Epilepsia 2018 Jun;59 Suppl 1:61-66. doi: 10.1111/epi.14054. PMID: 29873831
Arends JBAM
Epilepsia 2018 Jun;59 Suppl 1:30-35. Epub 2018 Apr 9 doi: 10.1111/epi.14053. PMID: 29635767
Fisher RS
Ann Neurol 2012 Feb;71(2):157-68. doi: 10.1002/ana.22621. PMID: 22367987Free PMC Article

Recent systematic reviews

Fang C, Yang L, Xiao F, Yan K, Zhou W
Epilepsy Res 2024 May;202:107363. Epub 2024 Apr 17 doi: 10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2024.107363. PMID: 38636407
Emamikhah M, Saiyarsarai P, Schneider SA, Fasano A, Mohammadzadeh N, Rohani M
Can J Neurol Sci 2023 Jan;50(1):60-71. Epub 2022 Jan 24 doi: 10.1017/cjn.2021.502. PMID: 35067244
Tényi D, Gyimesi C, Kupó P, Horváth R, Bóné B, Barsi P, Kovács N, Simor T, Siegler Z, Környei L, Fogarasi A, Janszky J
Epilepsia 2017 Mar;58(3):356-362. Epub 2016 Dec 18 doi: 10.1111/epi.13644. PMID: 27988965
Li Q, Chen X, He L, Zhou D
Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009 Jul 8;(3):CD006454. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD006454.pub2. PMID: 19588391
Walder B, Tramèr MR, Seeck M
Neurology 2002 May 14;58(9):1327-32. doi: 10.1212/wnl.58.9.1327. PMID: 12017156

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