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KBG syndrome(KBGS)

MedGen UID:
66317
Concept ID:
C0220687
Disease or Syndrome
Synonyms: KBGS; Short stature, characteristic facies, macrodontia, mental retardation, and skeletal anomalies
SNOMED CT: Short stature-characteristic facies-mental retardation-macrodontia-skeletal anomalies syndrome (711156009); KBG syndrome (711156009); Short stature, facial and skeletal anomalies, intellectual disability, macrodontia syndrome (711156009)
Modes of inheritance:
Autosomal dominant inheritance
MedGen UID:
141047
Concept ID:
C0443147
Intellectual Product
Source: Orphanet
A mode of inheritance that is observed for traits related to a gene encoded on one of the autosomes (i.e., the human chromosomes 1-22) in which a trait manifests in heterozygotes. In the context of medical genetics, an autosomal dominant disorder is caused when a single copy of the mutant allele is present. Males and females are affected equally, and can both transmit the disorder with a risk of 50% for each child of inheriting the mutant allele.
 
Gene (location): ANKRD11 (16q24.3)
 
Monarch Initiative: MONDO:0007846
OMIM®: 148050
Orphanet: ORPHA2332

Disease characteristics

Excerpted from the GeneReview: KBG Syndrome
KBG syndrome is typically characterized by macrodontia (especially of the upper central incisors), characteristic facial features (triangular face, brachycephaly, synophrys, widely spaced eyes, broad or bushy eyebrows, prominent ears, prominent nasal bridge, bulbous nose, anteverted nares, long philtrum, and thin vermilion of the upper lip), short stature, developmental delay / intellectual disability, and behavioral issues. Affected individuals may have feeding difficulties (particularly in infancy), skeletal anomalies (brachydactyly, large anterior fontanelle with delayed closure, scoliosis), hearing loss (conductive, mixed, and sensorineural), seizure disorder, and brain malformations. There is significant variability in the clinical findings, even between affected members of the same family. [from GeneReviews]
Authors:
Dayna Morel Swols  |  Mustafa Tekin   view full author information

Additional descriptions

From OMIM
KBG syndrome (KBGS) is characterized by macrodontia of the upper central incisors, distinctive craniofacial findings, short stature, skeletal anomalies, and neurologic involvement that includes global developmental delay, seizures, and intellectual disability (summary by Sirmaci et al., 2011). Sirmaci et al. (2011) noted that it is likely that KBG syndrome is underdiagnosed, since many of the features, including intellectual disability, are mild, and none of the features is a prerequisite for diagnosis.  http://www.omim.org/entry/148050
From MedlinePlus Genetics
KBG syndrome is a rare disorder that affects several body systems. "KBG" represents the surname initials of the first families diagnosed with the disorder. Common signs and symptoms in individuals with this condition include unusual facial features, skeletal abnormalities, and intellectual disability.

A characteristic feature of KBG syndrome is unusually large upper front teeth (macrodontia). Other distinctive facial features include a wide, short skull (brachycephaly), a triangular face shape, widely spaced eyes (hypertelorism), wide eyebrows that may grow together in the middle (synophrys), a prominent nasal bridge, a long space between the nose and upper lip (long philtrum), and a thin upper lip.

A common skeletal abnormality in people with KBG syndrome is slowed mineralization of bones (delayed bone age); for example, an affected 3-year-old child may have bones more typical of a child of 2. In addition, affected individuals can have abnormalities of the bones of the spine (vertebrae) and ribs. They can also have abnormalities of the bones of the hands or feet, including unusually short or curved fifth (pinky) fingers (brachydactyly or clinodactyly, respectively) and flat feet (pes planus). Most affected individuals are shorter than average from birth.

Development of mental and movement abilities is also delayed in KBG syndrome. Most affected individuals learn to speak and walk later than normal and have mild to moderate intellectual disability. Most people with this condition have neurodevelopmental disorders, such as hyperactivity; anxiety; or autism spectrum disorder, which is characterized by impaired communication and social interactions.

Less common features of KBG syndrome include hearing loss, seizures, and heart defects.  https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/kbg-syndrome

Clinical features

From HPO
Cryptorchidism
MedGen UID:
8192
Concept ID:
C0010417
Congenital Abnormality
Cryptorchidism, or failure of testicular descent, is a common human congenital abnormality with a multifactorial etiology that likely reflects the involvement of endocrine, environmental, and hereditary factors. Cryptorchidism can result in infertility and increases risk for testicular tumors. Testicular descent from abdomen to scrotum occurs in 2 distinct phases: the transabdominal phase and the inguinoscrotal phase (summary by Gorlov et al., 2002).
Epispadias
MedGen UID:
41839
Concept ID:
C0014588
Congenital Abnormality
Epispadias is a urogenital malformation characterized by the failure of the urethral tube to tubularize on the dorsal aspect. Unlike in hypospadias, where the meatus is on the ventral aspect, children with epispadias have a wide-open urethral plate on the dorsum. It is commonly seen as a component in the spectrum of bladder exstrophy-epispadias-complex. Isolated epispadias constitutes less than 10 percent of the total cases of epispadias.
Syndactyly
MedGen UID:
52619
Concept ID:
C0039075
Congenital Abnormality
Webbing or fusion of the fingers or toes, involving soft parts only or including bone structure. Bony fusions are referred to as "bony" syndactyly if the fusion occurs in a radio-ulnar axis. Fusions of bones of the fingers or toes in a proximo-distal axis are referred to as "symphalangism".
Single transverse palmar crease
MedGen UID:
96108
Concept ID:
C0424731
Finding
The distal and proximal transverse palmar creases are merged into a single transverse palmar crease.
Radial deviation of finger
MedGen UID:
322852
Concept ID:
C1836189
Finding
Bending or curvature of a finger toward the radial side (i.e., towards the thumb). The deviation is at the metacarpal-phalangeal joint, and this finding is distinct from clinodactyly.
Short palm
MedGen UID:
334684
Concept ID:
C1843108
Finding
Short palm.
Ulnar deviation of the 2nd finger
MedGen UID:
336806
Concept ID:
C1844891
Finding
Displacement of the 2nd (index) finger towards the ulnar side.
Clinodactyly of the 5th finger
MedGen UID:
340456
Concept ID:
C1850049
Congenital Abnormality
Clinodactyly refers to a bending or curvature of the fifth finger in the radial direction (i.e., towards the 4th finger).
Cutaneous syndactyly
MedGen UID:
396250
Concept ID:
C1861921
Congenital Abnormality
A soft tissue continuity in the A/P axis between two digits that extends distally to at least the level of the proximal interphalangeal joints, or a soft tissue continuity in the A/P axis between two digits that lies significantly distal to the flexion crease that overlies the metacarpophalangeal or metatarsophalangeal joint of the adjacent digits.
Short stature
MedGen UID:
87607
Concept ID:
C0349588
Finding
A height below that which is expected according to age and gender norms. Although there is no universally accepted definition of short stature, many refer to "short stature" as height more than 2 standard deviations below the mean for age and gender (or below the 3rd percentile for age and gender dependent norms).
Macrotia
MedGen UID:
488785
Concept ID:
C0152421
Congenital Abnormality
Median longitudinal ear length greater than two standard deviations above the mean and median ear width greater than two standard deviations above the mean (objective); or, apparent increase in length and width of the pinna (subjective).
Posteriorly rotated ears
MedGen UID:
96566
Concept ID:
C0431478
Congenital Abnormality
A type of abnormal location of the ears in which the position of the ears is characterized by posterior rotation (the superior part of the ears is rotated towards the back of the head, and the inferior part of the ears towards the front).
Protruding ear
MedGen UID:
343309
Concept ID:
C1855285
Finding
Angle formed by the plane of the ear and the mastoid bone greater than the 97th centile for age (objective); or, outer edge of the helix more than 2 cm from the mastoid at the point of maximum distance (objective).
Seizure
MedGen UID:
20693
Concept ID:
C0036572
Sign or Symptom
A seizure is an intermittent abnormality of nervous system physiology characterized by a transient occurrence of signs and/or symptoms due to abnormal excessive or synchronous neuronal activity in the brain.
Global developmental delay
MedGen UID:
107838
Concept ID:
C0557874
Finding
A delay in the achievement of motor or mental milestones in the domains of development of a child, including motor skills, speech and language, cognitive skills, and social and emotional skills. This term should only be used to describe children younger than five years of age.
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
MedGen UID:
220387
Concept ID:
C1263846
Mental or Behavioral Dysfunction
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a behavioral disorder that typically begins in childhood and is characterized by a short attention span (inattention), an inability to be calm and stay still (hyperactivity), and poor impulse control (impulsivity). Some people with ADHD have problems with only inattention or with hyperactivity and impulsivity, but most have problems related to all three features.\n\nIn people with ADHD, the characteristic behaviors are frequent and severe enough to interfere with the activities of daily living such as school, work, and relationships with others. Because of an inability to stay focused on tasks, people with inattention may be easily distracted, forgetful, avoid tasks that require sustained attention, have difficulty organizing tasks, or frequently lose items.\n\nHyperactivity is usually shown by frequent movement. Individuals with this feature often fidget or tap their foot when seated, leave their seat when it is inappropriate to do so (such as in the classroom), or talk a lot and interrupt others.\n\nImpulsivity can result in hasty actions without thought for the consequences. Individuals with poor impulse control may have difficulty waiting for their turn, deferring to others, or considering their actions before acting.\n\nIn most affected individuals, ADHD continues throughout life, but in about one-third of individuals, signs and symptoms of ADHD go away by adulthood.\n\nMore than two-thirds of all individuals with ADHD have additional conditions, including insomnia, mood or anxiety disorders, learning disorders, or substance use disorders. Affected individuals may also have autism spectrum disorder, which is characterized by impaired communication and social interaction, or Tourette syndrome, which is a disorder characterized by repetitive and involuntary movements or noises called tics.
Intellectual disability
MedGen UID:
811461
Concept ID:
C3714756
Mental or Behavioral Dysfunction
Intellectual disability, previously referred to as mental retardation, is characterized by subnormal intellectual functioning that occurs during the developmental period. It is defined by an IQ score below 70.
Cervical rib
MedGen UID:
102359
Concept ID:
C0158779
Congenital Abnormality
Presence of rib formation in the cervical region.
Brachycephaly
MedGen UID:
113165
Concept ID:
C0221356
Congenital Abnormality
An abnormality of skull shape characterized by a decreased anterior-posterior diameter. That is, a cephalic index greater than 81%. Alternatively, an apparently shortened anteroposterior dimension (length) of the head compared to width.
Rib fusion
MedGen UID:
78570
Concept ID:
C0265695
Congenital Abnormality
Complete or partial merging of adjacent ribs.
Delayed skeletal maturation
MedGen UID:
108148
Concept ID:
C0541764
Finding
A decreased rate of skeletal maturation. Delayed skeletal maturation can be diagnosed on the basis of an estimation of the bone age from radiographs of specific bones in the human body.
Thoracic kyphosis
MedGen UID:
263148
Concept ID:
C1184919
Finding
Over curvature of the thoracic region, leading to a round back or if sever to a hump.
Vertebral arch anomaly
MedGen UID:
322748
Concept ID:
C1835764
Finding
A morphological abnormality of the vertebral arch, i.e., of the posterior part of a vertebra.
Vertebral fusion
MedGen UID:
480139
Concept ID:
C3278509
Anatomical Abnormality
A developmental defect leading to the union of two adjacent vertebrae.
Microcephaly
MedGen UID:
1644158
Concept ID:
C4551563
Finding
Head circumference below 2 standard deviations below the mean for age and gender.
Webbed neck
MedGen UID:
113154
Concept ID:
C0221217
Congenital Abnormality
Pterygium colli is a congenital skin fold that runs along the sides of the neck down to the shoulders. It involves an ectopic fibrotic facial band superficial to the trapezius muscle. Excess hair-bearing skin is also present and extends down the cervical region well beyond the normal hairline.
Round face
MedGen UID:
116087
Concept ID:
C0239479
Finding
The facial appearance is more circular than usual as viewed from the front.
Macrodontia
MedGen UID:
82729
Concept ID:
C0266036
Finding
Increased size of the teeth, which can be defined as a mesiodistal tooth diameter (width) more than 2 SD above mean for age. Alternatively, an apparently increased maximum width of the tooth.
Downslanted palpebral fissures
MedGen UID:
98391
Concept ID:
C0423110
Finding
The palpebral fissure inclination is more than two standard deviations below the mean.
Telecanthus
MedGen UID:
140836
Concept ID:
C0423113
Finding
Distance between the inner canthi more than two standard deviations above the mean (objective); or, apparently increased distance between the inner canthi.
Short neck
MedGen UID:
99267
Concept ID:
C0521525
Finding
Diminished length of the neck.
Underdeveloped nasal alae
MedGen UID:
322332
Concept ID:
C1834055
Congenital Abnormality
Thinned, deficient, or excessively arched ala nasi.
Widely-spaced maxillary central incisors
MedGen UID:
322746
Concept ID:
C1835762
Finding
Increased distance between the maxillary central permanent incisor tooth.
Triangular face
MedGen UID:
324383
Concept ID:
C1835884
Finding
Facial contour, as viewed from the front, triangular in shape, with breadth at the temples and tapering to a narrow chin.
Tented upper lip vermilion
MedGen UID:
326574
Concept ID:
C1839767
Finding
Triangular appearance of the oral aperture with the apex in the midpoint of the upper vermilion and the lower vermilion forming the base.
Anteverted nares
MedGen UID:
326648
Concept ID:
C1840077
Finding
Anteriorly-facing nostrils viewed with the head in the Frankfurt horizontal and the eyes of the observer level with the eyes of the subject. This gives the appearance of an upturned nose (upturned nasal tip).
Low anterior hairline
MedGen UID:
331280
Concept ID:
C1842366
Finding
Distance between the hairline (trichion) and the glabella (the most prominent point on the frontal bone above the root of the nose), in the midline, more than two SD below the mean. Alternatively, an apparently decreased distance between the hairline and the glabella.
Pointed chin
MedGen UID:
336193
Concept ID:
C1844505
Finding
A marked tapering of the lower face to the chin.
Long palpebral fissure
MedGen UID:
340300
Concept ID:
C1849340
Finding
Distance between medial and lateral canthi is more than two standard deviations above the mean for age (objective); or, apparently increased length of the palpebral fissures.
Thick eyebrow
MedGen UID:
377914
Concept ID:
C1853487
Finding
Increased density/number and/or increased diameter of eyebrow hairs.
Prominent nasal bridge
MedGen UID:
343051
Concept ID:
C1854113
Finding
Anterior positioning of the nasal root in comparison to the usual positioning for age.
Low posterior hairline
MedGen UID:
383755
Concept ID:
C1855728
Finding
Hair on the neck extends more inferiorly than usual.
Long philtrum
MedGen UID:
351278
Concept ID:
C1865014
Finding
Distance between nasal base and midline upper lip vermilion border more than 2 SD above the mean. Alternatively, an apparently increased distance between nasal base and midline upper lip vermilion border.
Oligodontia
MedGen UID:
904670
Concept ID:
C4082304
Congenital Abnormality
The absence of six or more teeth from the normal series by a failure to develop.
Synophrys
MedGen UID:
98132
Concept ID:
C0431447
Congenital Abnormality
Meeting of the medial eyebrows in the midline.
Ptosis
MedGen UID:
2287
Concept ID:
C0005745
Disease or Syndrome
The upper eyelid margin is positioned 3 mm or more lower than usual and covers the superior portion of the iris (objective); or, the upper lid margin obscures at least part of the pupil (subjective).
Hypertelorism
MedGen UID:
9373
Concept ID:
C0020534
Finding
Although hypertelorism means an excessive distance between any paired organs (e.g., the nipples), the use of the word has come to be confined to ocular hypertelorism. Hypertelorism occurs as an isolated feature and is also a feature of many syndromes, e.g., Opitz G syndrome (see 300000), Greig cephalopolysyndactyly (175700), and Noonan syndrome (163950) (summary by Cohen et al., 1995).

Term Hierarchy

CClinical test,  RResearch test,  OOMIM,  GGeneReviews,  VClinVar  
Follow this link to review classifications for KBG syndrome in Orphanet.

Professional guidelines

PubMed

Martinez-Cayuelas E, Blanco-Kelly F, Lopez-Grondona F, Swafiri ST, Lopez-Rodriguez R, Losada-Del Pozo R, Mahillo-Fernandez I, Moreno B, Rodrigo-Moreno M, Casas-Alba D, Lopez-Gonzalez A, García-Miñaúr S, Ángeles Mori M, Pacio-Minguez M, Rikeros-Orozco E, Santos-Simarro F, Cruz-Rojo J, Quesada-Espinosa JF, Sanchez-Calvin MT, Sanchez-Del Pozo J, Bernado Fonz R, Isidoro-Garcia M, Ruiz-Ayucar I, Alvarez-Mora MI, Blanco-Lago R, De Azua B, Eiris J, Garcia-Peñas JJ, Gil-Fournier B, Gomez-Lado C, Irazabal N, Lopez-Gonzalez V, Madrigal I, Malaga I, Martinez-Menendez B, Ramiro-Leon S, Garcia-Hoyos M, Prieto-Matos P, Lopez-Pison J, Aguilera-Albesa S, Alvarez S, Fernández-Jaén A, Llano-Rivas I, Gener-Querol B, Ayuso C, Arteche-Lopez A, Palomares-Bralo M, Cueto-González A, Valenzuela I, Martinez-Monseny A, Lorda-Sanchez I, Almoguera B
J Med Genet 2023 Jul;60(7):644-654. Epub 2022 Nov 29 doi: 10.1136/jmg-2022-108632. PMID: 36446582
David D, Freixo JP, Fino J, Carvalho I, Marques M, Cardoso M, Piña-Aguilar RE, Morton CC
Hum Genet 2020 Apr;139(4):531-543. Epub 2020 Feb 6 doi: 10.1007/s00439-020-02121-x. PMID: 32030560Free PMC Article
Meyer R, Soellner L, Begemann M, Dicks S, Fekete G, Rahner N, Zerres K, Elbracht M, Eggermann T
J Pediatr 2017 Aug;187:206-212.e1. Epub 2017 May 19 doi: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2017.04.018. PMID: 28529015

Recent clinical studies

Etiology

Whitney R, Komar M, Yoganathan S, Costain G, Jain P
Pediatr Neurol 2024 Feb;151:138-142. Epub 2023 Dec 14 doi: 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2023.12.006. PMID: 38157719
Carter DC, Kierzkowska O, Sarino K, Guo L, Marchi E, Lyon GJ
Am J Med Genet A 2024 Apr;194(4):e63473. Epub 2023 Nov 14 doi: 10.1002/ajmg.a.63473. PMID: 37964495
Auconi M, Serino D, Digilio MC, Gnazzo M, Conti M, Vigevano F, Fusco L
Dev Med Child Neurol 2023 May;65(5):712-720. Epub 2022 Oct 4 doi: 10.1111/dmcn.15428. PMID: 36196002
van Dongen LCM, Wingbermühle E, van der Veld WM, Vermeulen K, Bos-Roubos AG, Ockeloen CW, Kleefstra T, Egger JIM
Genes Brain Behav 2019 Apr;18(4):e12553. Epub 2019 Feb 21 doi: 10.1111/gbb.12553. PMID: 30786142Free PMC Article
Low K, Ashraf T, Canham N, Clayton-Smith J, Deshpande C, Donaldson A, Fisher R, Flinter F, Foulds N, Fryer A, Gibson K, Hayes I, Hills A, Holder S, Irving M, Joss S, Kivuva E, Lachlan K, Magee A, McConnell V, McEntagart M, Metcalfe K, Montgomery T, Newbury-Ecob R, Stewart F, Turnpenny P, Vogt J, Fitzpatrick D, Williams M; DDD Study, Smithson S
Am J Med Genet A 2016 Nov;170(11):2835-2846. Epub 2016 Sep 26 doi: 10.1002/ajmg.a.37842. PMID: 27667800Free PMC Article

Diagnosis

Peluso F, Caraffi SG, Contrò G, Valeri L, Napoli M, Carboni G, Seth A, Zuntini R, Coccia E, Astrea G, Bisgaard AM, Ivanovski I, Maitz S, Brischoux-Boucher E, Carter MT, Dentici ML, Devriendt K, Bellini M, Digilio MC, Doja A, Dyment DA, Farholt S, Ferreira CR, Wolfe LA, Gahl WA, Gnazzo M, Goel H, Grønborg SW, Hammer T, Iughetti L, Kleefstra T, Koolen DA, Lepri FR, Lemire G, Louro P, McCullagh G, Madeo SF, Milone A, Milone R, Nielsen JEK, Novelli A, Ockeloen CW, Pascarella R, Pippucci T, Ricca I, Robertson SP, Sawyer S, Falkenberg Smeland M, Stegmann S, Stumpel CT, Goel A, Taylor JM, Barbuti D, Soresina A, Bedeschi MF, Battini R, Cavalli A, Fusco C, Iascone M, Van Maldergem L, Venkateswaran S, Zuffardi O, Vergano S, Garavelli L, Bayat A
J Med Genet 2023 Nov 27;60(12):1224-1234. doi: 10.1136/jmg-2023-109141. PMID: 37586838Free PMC Article
Martinez-Cayuelas E, Blanco-Kelly F, Lopez-Grondona F, Swafiri ST, Lopez-Rodriguez R, Losada-Del Pozo R, Mahillo-Fernandez I, Moreno B, Rodrigo-Moreno M, Casas-Alba D, Lopez-Gonzalez A, García-Miñaúr S, Ángeles Mori M, Pacio-Minguez M, Rikeros-Orozco E, Santos-Simarro F, Cruz-Rojo J, Quesada-Espinosa JF, Sanchez-Calvin MT, Sanchez-Del Pozo J, Bernado Fonz R, Isidoro-Garcia M, Ruiz-Ayucar I, Alvarez-Mora MI, Blanco-Lago R, De Azua B, Eiris J, Garcia-Peñas JJ, Gil-Fournier B, Gomez-Lado C, Irazabal N, Lopez-Gonzalez V, Madrigal I, Malaga I, Martinez-Menendez B, Ramiro-Leon S, Garcia-Hoyos M, Prieto-Matos P, Lopez-Pison J, Aguilera-Albesa S, Alvarez S, Fernández-Jaén A, Llano-Rivas I, Gener-Querol B, Ayuso C, Arteche-Lopez A, Palomares-Bralo M, Cueto-González A, Valenzuela I, Martinez-Monseny A, Lorda-Sanchez I, Almoguera B
J Med Genet 2023 Jul;60(7):644-654. Epub 2022 Nov 29 doi: 10.1136/jmg-2022-108632. PMID: 36446582
Parenti I, Mallozzi MB, Hüning I, Gervasini C, Kuechler A, Agolini E, Albrecht B, Baquero-Montoya C, Bohring A, Bramswig NC, Busche A, Dalski A, Guo Y, Hanker B, Hellenbroich Y, Horn D, Innes AM, Leoni C, Li YR, Lynch SA, Mariani M, Medne L, Mikat B, Milani D, Onesimo R, Ortiz-Gonzalez X, Prott EC, Reutter H, Rossier E, Selicorni A, Wieacker P, Wilkens A, Wieczorek D, Zackai EH, Zampino G, Zirn B, Hakonarson H, Deardorff MA, Gillessen-Kaesbach G, Kaiser FJ
Clin Genet 2021 Aug;100(2):187-200. Epub 2021 May 14 doi: 10.1111/cge.13977. PMID: 33955014
Libianto R, Wu KH, Devery S, Eisman JA, Center JR
Bone 2019 Jun;123:18-22. Epub 2019 Mar 12 doi: 10.1016/j.bone.2019.03.012. PMID: 30877071
Brancati F, Sarkozy A, Dallapiccola B
Orphanet J Rare Dis 2006 Dec 12;1:50. doi: 10.1186/1750-1172-1-50. PMID: 17163996Free PMC Article

Therapy

Roztoczyńska D, Kot-Marchewczyk A, Wędrychowicz A, Dobosz A, Starzyk J
Pediatr Endocrinol Diabetes Metab 2024;30(2):51-60. doi: 10.5114/pedm.2024.140998. PMID: 39026481Free PMC Article
Bagattoni S, D'Alessandro G, Marzo G, Piana G
Eur Arch Paediatr Dent 2018 Apr;19(2):125-128. Epub 2018 Mar 27 doi: 10.1007/s40368-018-0336-x. PMID: 29589253
Reynaert N, Ockeloen CW, Sävendahl L, Beckers D, Devriendt K, Kleefstra T, Carels CE, Grigelioniene G, Nordgren A, Francois I, de Zegher F, Casteels K
Horm Res Paediatr 2015;83(5):361-4. Epub 2015 Apr 1 doi: 10.1159/000380908. PMID: 25833229
Walz K, Cohen D, Neilsen PM, Foster J 2nd, Brancati F, Demir K, Fisher R, Moffat M, Verbeek NE, Bjørgo K, Lo Castro A, Curatolo P, Novelli G, Abad C, Lei C, Zhang L, Diaz-Horta O, Young JI, Callen DF, Tekin M
Hum Genet 2015 Feb;134(2):181-90. Epub 2014 Nov 21 doi: 10.1007/s00439-014-1509-2. PMID: 25413698

Prognosis

Miyatake S, Okamoto N, Stark Z, Nabetani M, Tsurusaki Y, Nakashima M, Miyake N, Mizuguchi T, Ohtake A, Saitsu H, Matsumoto N
J Hum Genet 2017 Aug;62(8):741-746. Epub 2017 Mar 2 doi: 10.1038/jhg.2017.24. PMID: 28250421Free PMC Article
Kleyner R, Malcolmson J, Tegay D, Ward K, Maughan A, Maughan G, Nelson L, Wang K, Robison R, Lyon GJ
Cold Spring Harb Mol Case Stud 2016 Nov;2(6):a001131. doi: 10.1101/mcs.a001131. PMID: 27900361Free PMC Article
Goldenberg A, Riccardi F, Tessier A, Pfundt R, Busa T, Cacciagli P, Capri Y, Coutton C, Delahaye-Duriez A, Frebourg T, Gatinois V, Guerrot AM, Genevieve D, Lecoquierre F, Jacquette A, Khau Van Kien P, Leheup B, Marlin S, Verloes A, Michaud V, Nadeau G, Mignot C, Parent P, Rossi M, Toutain A, Schaefer E, Thauvin-Robinet C, Van Maldergem L, Thevenon J, Satre V, Perrin L, Vincent-Delorme C, Sorlin A, Missirian C, Villard L, Mancini J, Saugier-Veber P, Philip N
Am J Med Genet A 2016 Nov;170(11):2847-2859. Epub 2016 Sep 8 doi: 10.1002/ajmg.a.37878. PMID: 27605097
Hafiz A, Mufeed A, Ismael M, Alam M
BMJ Case Rep 2015 Jul 17;2015 doi: 10.1136/bcr-2015-210352. PMID: 26187867Free PMC Article
Kumar H, Prabhu N, Cameron A
Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2009 Sep;108(3):e72-9. doi: 10.1016/j.tripleo.2009.04.035. PMID: 19716495

Clinical prediction guides

Choi Y, Choi J, Do H, Hwang S, Seo GH, Choi IH, Keum C, Choi JH, Kang M, Kim GH, Yoo HW, Lee BH
Mol Genet Genomic Med 2023 Apr;11(4):e2127. Epub 2022 Dec 23 doi: 10.1002/mgg3.2127. PMID: 36564961Free PMC Article
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