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Adrenoleukodystrophy(ALD)

MedGen UID:
57667
Concept ID:
C0162309
Disease or Syndrome
Synonyms: ADDISON DISEASE AND CEREBRAL SCLEROSIS; Adrenoleukodystrophy, X-Linked; ALD; BRONZE SCHILDER DISEASE; MELANODERMIC LEUKODYSTROPHY; SIEMERLING-CREUTZFELDT DISEASE
SNOMED CT: Adrenoleukodystrophy (65389002); Bronze Schilder disease (65389002); Schilder-Addison complex (65389002); Siemerling-Creutzfeldt disease (65389002); ALD - adrenoleukodystrophy (65389002); X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy (65389002)
Modes of inheritance:
X-linked dominant inheritance
MedGen UID:
376232
Concept ID:
C1847879
Finding
Source: Orphanet
A mode of inheritance that is observed for dominant traits related to a gene encoded on the X chromosome. In the context of medical genetics, X-linked dominant disorders tend to manifest very severely in affected males. The severity of manifestation in females may depend on the degree of skewed X inactivation.
 
Gene (location): ABCD1 (Xq28)
 
Monarch Initiative: MONDO:0018544
OMIM®: 300100
Orphanet: ORPHA43

Disease characteristics

Excerpted from the GeneReview: X-Linked Adrenoleukodystrophy
X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy (X-ALD) involves the central or peripheral nervous system and the adrenal cortex. The nervous system and adrenal glands are involved independently; thus, an affected male may be diagnosed with cerebral adrenoleukodystrophy (CALD), adrenomyeloneuropathy (AMN), and/or primary adrenocortical insufficiency. CALD is characterized by progressive behavioral, cognitive, and neurologic deficits; onset of symptoms ranges from childhood (typically ages 4 to 8 years) to adolescence (ages 11 to 21 years) and adulthood. AMN is characterized by leg weakness, spasticity, clumsy gait, pain, and bladder and bowel dysfunction; onset is typically in the 20s and 30s. Onset of primary adrenocortical insufficiency ranges from age two years to adulthood (most commonly by age 7.5 years). Heterozygous females are not at increased risk to develop CALD, but are at increased risk to develop AMN and primary adrenocortical insufficiency with increasing age. [from GeneReviews]
Authors:
Gerald V Raymond  |  Ann B Moser  |  Ali Fatemi   view full author information

Additional descriptions

From OMIM
Adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD) is an X-linked disorder which is secondary to a mutation in the ABCD1 gene and results in the apparent defect in peroxisomal beta oxidation and the accumulation of the saturated very long chain fatty acids (VLCFA) in all tissues of the body. The manifestations of the disorder occur primarily in the adrenal cortex, the myelin of the central nervous system, and the Leydig cells of the testes. ABCD1 is an ATPase binding cassette protein in the same category of transporter proteins such as the CFTR and MDR proteins. Identification of X-ALD as a lipid-storage disease, as a defect in the capacity to degrade VLCFAs, and its characterization as a peroxisomal disorder was reviewed by Moser (1997). Moser et al. (2005) provided a clinical review of ALD.  http://www.omim.org/entry/300100
From MedlinePlus Genetics
X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy is a genetic disorder that mainly affects the nervous system and the adrenal glands, which are located on top of each kidney. In this disorder, the fatty covering (myelin) that insulates nerves in the brain and spinal cord tends to deteriorate (a condition called demyelination). The loss of myelin reduces the ability of the nerves to relay information to the brain. In addition, damage to the outer layer of the adrenal glands (adrenal cortex) causes a shortage of certain hormones (adrenocortical insufficiency). Adrenocortical insufficiency may cause weakness, weight loss, skin changes, vomiting, and coma.

There are four distinct types of X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy: a childhood cerebral form, an adrenomyeloneuropathy type, an adrenal insufficiency only form, and a type called asymptomatic.

The childhood cerebral form of X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy typically occurs in boys. Girls are rarely affected with this type. If not treated, affected boys experience learning and behavioral problems that usually begin between the ages of 4 and 10. Over time the symptoms can worsen, and children may have difficulty reading, writing, understanding speech, and comprehending written material. Additional signs and symptoms of the cerebral form include aggressive behavior, vision problems, difficulty swallowing, poor coordination, and impaired adrenal gland function. The rate at which this disorder progresses is variable but can be extremely rapid, often leading to total disability within a few years. The life expectancy of individuals with this type depends on whether early diagnosis and treatment are available. Without treatment, individuals with the cerebral form of X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy usually survive only a few years after symptoms begin.

Signs and symptoms of the adrenomyeloneuropathy type appear between early adulthood and middle age. Affected individuals develop progressive stiffness and weakness in their legs (paraparesis), experience urinary and genital tract disorders, and often show changes in behavior and intellectual function. Most people with the adrenomyeloneuropathy type also have adrenocortical insufficiency. Some severely affected individuals develop cerebral X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy. 

People with X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy whose only symptom is adrenocortical insufficiency are said to have the adrenal insufficiency only form. In these individuals, adrenocortical insufficiency can begin anytime between the first year of life and adulthood. However, most affected individuals develop the additional features of cerebral X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy in childhood or the adrenomyeloneuropathy type by the time they reach middle age. The life expectancy of individuals with the adrenal insufficiency form depends on the severity of the signs and symptoms, but typically this is the mildest of the three types.

Children with the asymptomatic form do not appear to have any symptoms of X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy, but medical testing may show brain or biochemical abnormalities. Some individuals with the asymptomatic form may develop features of other types of X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy later in life.

Rarely, individuals with X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy develop multiple features of the disorder in adolescence or early adulthood. In addition to adrenocortical insufficiency, these individuals usually have psychiatric disorders and a loss of intellectual function (dementia). It is unclear whether these individuals have a distinct form of the condition or a variation of one of the previously described types.

For reasons that are unclear, different forms of X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy can be seen in affected individuals within the same family.  https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/x-linked-adrenoleukodystrophy

Clinical features

From HPO
Bowel incontinence
MedGen UID:
41977
Concept ID:
C0015732
Disease or Syndrome
Involuntary fecal soiling in adults and children who have usually already been toilet trained.
Urinary incontinence
MedGen UID:
22579
Concept ID:
C0042024
Finding
Loss of the ability to control the urinary bladder leading to involuntary urination.
Urinary bladder sphincter dysfunction
MedGen UID:
334804
Concept ID:
C1843663
Finding
Abnormal function of a sphincter of the urinary bladder.
Impotence
MedGen UID:
1720680
Concept ID:
CN208474
Finding
Inability to develop or maintain an erection of the penis.
Lower limb muscle weakness
MedGen UID:
324478
Concept ID:
C1836296
Finding
Weakness of the muscles of the legs.
Hearing impairment
MedGen UID:
235586
Concept ID:
C1384666
Disease or Syndrome
A decreased magnitude of the sensory perception of sound.
Atypical behavior
MedGen UID:
14048
Concept ID:
C0004941
Sign or Symptom
Atypical behavior is an abnormality in a person's actions that can be controlled or modulated by the will of the individual. While abnormal behaviors can be difficult to control, they are distinct from other abnormal actions that cannot be affected by the individual's will.
Neurodegeneration
MedGen UID:
17999
Concept ID:
C0027746
Cell or Molecular Dysfunction
Progressive loss of neural cells and tissue.
Psychotic disorder
MedGen UID:
19568
Concept ID:
C0033975
Mental or Behavioral Dysfunction
A condition characterized by changes in personality and thought patterns, often accompanied by hallucinations and delusional beliefs, is known as psychosis.
Seizure
MedGen UID:
20693
Concept ID:
C0036572
Sign or Symptom
A seizure is an intermittent abnormality of nervous system physiology characterized by a transient occurrence of signs and/or symptoms due to abnormal excessive or synchronous neuronal activity in the brain.
Spastic paraplegia
MedGen UID:
20882
Concept ID:
C0037772
Disease or Syndrome
Spasticity and weakness of the leg and hip muscles.
Polyneuropathy
MedGen UID:
57502
Concept ID:
C0152025
Disease or Syndrome
A generalized disorder of peripheral nerves.
Paraparesis
MedGen UID:
113150
Concept ID:
C0221166
Sign or Symptom
Weakness or partial paralysis in the lower limbs.
Slurred speech
MedGen UID:
65885
Concept ID:
C0234518
Finding
Abnormal coordination of muscles involved in speech.
Mental deterioration
MedGen UID:
66713
Concept ID:
C0234985
Mental or Behavioral Dysfunction
Loss of previously present mental abilities, generally in adults.
Truncal ataxia
MedGen UID:
96535
Concept ID:
C0427190
Sign or Symptom
Truncal ataxia is a sign of ataxia characterized by instability of the trunk. It usually occurs during sitting.
Dementia
MedGen UID:
99229
Concept ID:
C0497327
Mental or Behavioral Dysfunction
A loss of global cognitive ability of sufficient amount to interfere with normal social or occupational function. Dementia represents a loss of previously present cognitive abilities, generally in adults, and can affect memory, thinking, language, judgment, and behavior.
Incoordination
MedGen UID:
141714
Concept ID:
C0520966
Finding
Loss of speech
MedGen UID:
107445
Concept ID:
C0542223
Finding
Limb ataxia
MedGen UID:
196692
Concept ID:
C0750937
Finding
A kind of ataxia that affects movements of the extremities.
Abnormal cerebral white matter morphology
MedGen UID:
181756
Concept ID:
C0948163
Pathologic Function
An abnormality of the cerebral white matter.
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
MedGen UID:
220387
Concept ID:
C1263846
Mental or Behavioral Dysfunction
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a behavioral disorder that typically begins in childhood and is characterized by a short attention span (inattention), an inability to be calm and stay still (hyperactivity), and poor impulse control (impulsivity). Some people with ADHD have problems with only inattention or with hyperactivity and impulsivity, but most have problems related to all three features.\n\nIn people with ADHD, the characteristic behaviors are frequent and severe enough to interfere with the activities of daily living such as school, work, and relationships with others. Because of an inability to stay focused on tasks, people with inattention may be easily distracted, forgetful, avoid tasks that require sustained attention, have difficulty organizing tasks, or frequently lose items.\n\nHyperactivity is usually shown by frequent movement. Individuals with this feature often fidget or tap their foot when seated, leave their seat when it is inappropriate to do so (such as in the classroom), or talk a lot and interrupt others.\n\nImpulsivity can result in hasty actions without thought for the consequences. Individuals with poor impulse control may have difficulty waiting for their turn, deferring to others, or considering their actions before acting.\n\nIn most affected individuals, ADHD continues throughout life, but in about one-third of individuals, signs and symptoms of ADHD go away by adulthood.\n\nMore than two-thirds of all individuals with ADHD have additional conditions, including insomnia, mood or anxiety disorders, learning disorders, or substance use disorders. Affected individuals may also have autism spectrum disorder, which is characterized by impaired communication and social interaction, or Tourette syndrome, which is a disorder characterized by repetitive and involuntary movements or noises called tics.
Impaired vibration sensation at ankles
MedGen UID:
343107
Concept ID:
C1854372
Finding
A decrease in the ability to perceive vibration at the ankles. Clinically, this is usually tested with a tuning fork which vibrates at 128 Hz and is applied to the malleoli of the ankles.
Bulbar palsy
MedGen UID:
898626
Concept ID:
C4082299
Disease or Syndrome
Bulbar weakness (or bulbar palsy) refers to bilateral impairment of function of the lower cranial nerves IX, X, XI and XII, which occurs due to lower motor neuron lesion either at nuclear or fascicular level in the medulla or from bilateral lesions of the lower cranial nerves outside the brain-stem. Bulbar weakness is often associated with difficulty in chewing, weakness of the facial muscles, dysarthria, palatal weakness and regurgitation of fluids, dysphagia, and dysphonia.
Elevated circulating long chain fatty acid concentration
MedGen UID:
395207
Concept ID:
C1859241
Finding
Increased concentration of long-chain fatty acids in the blood circulation.
Alopecia
MedGen UID:
7982
Concept ID:
C0002170
Finding
A noncongenital process of hair loss, which may progress to partial or complete baldness.
Hyperpigmentation of the skin
MedGen UID:
57992
Concept ID:
C0162834
Pathologic Function
A darkening of the skin related to an increase in melanin production and deposition.
Hypogonadism
MedGen UID:
5711
Concept ID:
C0020619
Disease or Syndrome
A decreased functionality of the gonad.
Primary adrenal insufficiency
MedGen UID:
854614
Concept ID:
C3887896
Disease or Syndrome
Insufficient production of steroid hormones (primarily cortisol) by the adrenal glands as a result of a primary defect in the glands themselves.
Blindness
MedGen UID:
99138
Concept ID:
C0456909
Disease or Syndrome
Blindness is the condition of lacking visual perception defined as a profound reduction in visual perception. On the 6m visual acuity scale, blindness is defined as less than 3/60. On the 20ft visual acuity scale, blindness is defined as less than 20/400. On the decimal visual acuity scale, blindness is defined as less than 0.05. Blindness is typically characterized by a visual field of no greater than 10 degrees in radius around central fixation.
Visual loss
MedGen UID:
784038
Concept ID:
C3665386
Finding
Loss of visual acuity (implying that vision was better at a certain time point in life). Otherwise the term reduced visual acuity should be used (or a subclass of that).

Professional guidelines

PubMed

Gujral J, Sethuram S
Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 2023 Feb 1;30(1):44-51. Epub 2022 Nov 14 doi: 10.1097/MED.0000000000000782. PMID: 36373727
Turk BR, Theda C, Fatemi A, Moser AB
Int J Dev Neurosci 2020 Feb;80(1):52-72. Epub 2020 Jan 26 doi: 10.1002/jdn.10003. PMID: 31909500Free PMC Article
Engelen M, Kemp S, Poll-The BT
Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2014 Oct;14(10):486. doi: 10.1007/s11910-014-0486-0. PMID: 25115486

Curated

Krasemann E, Kemp S, Gal A
Eur J Hum Genet 2012 Mar;20(3) Epub 2011 Nov 9 doi: 10.1038/ejhg.2011.193. PMID: 22071894Free PMC Article

American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics, Newborn Screening ACT Sheet, Elevated lysophosphatidylcholines, X-Linked Adrenoleukodystrophy (X-ALD), 2023

ACMG Algorithm, X-ALD: Elevated lysophosphatidylcholines C24:0, C26:0, 2023

Leukodystrophies in Children: Diagnosis, Care, and Treatment, Pediatrics (2021) 148 (3): e2021053126.

Recent clinical studies

Etiology

Cappa M, Todisco T, Bizzarri C
Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2023;14:1309053. Epub 2023 Nov 16 doi: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1309053. PMID: 38034003Free PMC Article
Wanders RJA, Baes M, Ribeiro D, Ferdinandusse S, Waterham HR
Physiol Rev 2023 Jan 1;103(1):957-1024. Epub 2022 Aug 11 doi: 10.1152/physrev.00051.2021. PMID: 35951481
Gupta AO, Raymond G, Pierpont EI, Kemp S, McIvor RS, Rayannavar A, Miller B, Lund TC, Orchard PJ
Expert Opin Biol Ther 2022 Sep;22(9):1151-1162. Epub 2022 Sep 19 doi: 10.1080/14712598.2022.2124857. PMID: 36107226
Ashrafi MR, Amanat M, Garshasbi M, Kameli R, Nilipour Y, Heidari M, Rezaei Z, Tavasoli AR
Expert Rev Neurother 2020 Jan;20(1):65-84. Epub 2019 Dec 12 doi: 10.1080/14737175.2020.1699060. PMID: 31829048
Köhler W, Curiel J, Vanderver A
Nat Rev Neurol 2018 Feb;14(2):94-105. Epub 2018 Jan 5 doi: 10.1038/nrneurol.2017.175. PMID: 29302065Free PMC Article

Diagnosis

Cappa M, Todisco T, Bizzarri C
Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2023;14:1309053. Epub 2023 Nov 16 doi: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1309053. PMID: 38034003Free PMC Article
Gujral J, Sethuram S
Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 2023 Feb 1;30(1):44-51. Epub 2022 Nov 14 doi: 10.1097/MED.0000000000000782. PMID: 36373727
Plontke SK
Laryngorhinootologie 2021 Apr;100(S 01):S1. Epub 2021 Apr 30 doi: 10.1055/s-1397-0832. PMID: 34352897Free PMC Article
Zhu J, Eichler F, Biffi A, Duncan CN, Williams DA, Majzoub JA
Endocr Rev 2020 Aug 1;41(4):577-93. doi: 10.1210/endrev/bnaa013. PMID: 32364223Free PMC Article
Turk BR, Theda C, Fatemi A, Moser AB
Int J Dev Neurosci 2020 Feb;80(1):52-72. Epub 2020 Jan 26 doi: 10.1002/jdn.10003. PMID: 31909500Free PMC Article

Therapy

Cappa M, Todisco T, Bizzarri C
Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2023;14:1309053. Epub 2023 Nov 16 doi: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1309053. PMID: 38034003Free PMC Article
Engelen M, van Ballegoij WJC, Mallack EJ, Van Haren KP, Köhler W, Salsano E, van Trotsenburg ASP, Mochel F, Sevin C, Regelmann MO, Tritos NA, Halper A, Lachmann RH, Davison J, Raymond GV, Lund TC, Orchard PJ, Kuehl JS, Lindemans CA, Caruso P, Turk BR, Moser AB, Vaz FM, Ferdinandusse S, Kemp S, Fatemi A, Eichler FS, Huffnagel IC
Neurology 2022 Nov 22;99(21):940-951. Epub 2022 Sep 29 doi: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000201374. PMID: 36175155Free PMC Article
Zhu J, Eichler F, Biffi A, Duncan CN, Williams DA, Majzoub JA
Endocr Rev 2020 Aug 1;41(4):577-93. doi: 10.1210/endrev/bnaa013. PMID: 32364223Free PMC Article
Eichler F, Duncan C, Musolino PL, Orchard PJ, De Oliveira S, Thrasher AJ, Armant M, Dansereau C, Lund TC, Miller WP, Raymond GV, Sankar R, Shah AJ, Sevin C, Gaspar HB, Gissen P, Amartino H, Bratkovic D, Smith NJC, Paker AM, Shamir E, O'Meara T, Davidson D, Aubourg P, Williams DA
N Engl J Med 2017 Oct 26;377(17):1630-1638. Epub 2017 Oct 4 doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1700554. PMID: 28976817Free PMC Article
Horrocks LA, Yeo YK
Pharmacol Res 1999 Sep;40(3):211-25. doi: 10.1006/phrs.1999.0495. PMID: 10479465

Prognosis

Gujral J, Sethuram S
Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 2023 Feb 1;30(1):44-51. Epub 2022 Nov 14 doi: 10.1097/MED.0000000000000782. PMID: 36373727
Engelen M, van Ballegoij WJC, Mallack EJ, Van Haren KP, Köhler W, Salsano E, van Trotsenburg ASP, Mochel F, Sevin C, Regelmann MO, Tritos NA, Halper A, Lachmann RH, Davison J, Raymond GV, Lund TC, Orchard PJ, Kuehl JS, Lindemans CA, Caruso P, Turk BR, Moser AB, Vaz FM, Ferdinandusse S, Kemp S, Fatemi A, Eichler FS, Huffnagel IC
Neurology 2022 Nov 22;99(21):940-951. Epub 2022 Sep 29 doi: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000201374. PMID: 36175155Free PMC Article
Zhu J, Eichler F, Biffi A, Duncan CN, Williams DA, Majzoub JA
Endocr Rev 2020 Aug 1;41(4):577-93. doi: 10.1210/endrev/bnaa013. PMID: 32364223Free PMC Article
Köhler W, Curiel J, Vanderver A
Nat Rev Neurol 2018 Feb;14(2):94-105. Epub 2018 Jan 5 doi: 10.1038/nrneurol.2017.175. PMID: 29302065Free PMC Article
Wirth T, Parker N, Ylä-Herttuala S
Gene 2013 Aug 10;525(2):162-9. Epub 2013 Apr 23 doi: 10.1016/j.gene.2013.03.137. PMID: 23618815

Clinical prediction guides

Cappa M, Todisco T, Bizzarri C
Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2023;14:1309053. Epub 2023 Nov 16 doi: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1309053. PMID: 38034003Free PMC Article
Engelen M, van Ballegoij WJC, Mallack EJ, Van Haren KP, Köhler W, Salsano E, van Trotsenburg ASP, Mochel F, Sevin C, Regelmann MO, Tritos NA, Halper A, Lachmann RH, Davison J, Raymond GV, Lund TC, Orchard PJ, Kuehl JS, Lindemans CA, Caruso P, Turk BR, Moser AB, Vaz FM, Ferdinandusse S, Kemp S, Fatemi A, Eichler FS, Huffnagel IC
Neurology 2022 Nov 22;99(21):940-951. Epub 2022 Sep 29 doi: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000201374. PMID: 36175155Free PMC Article
van de Stadt SIW, Huffnagel IC, Turk BR, van der Knaap MS, Engelen M
Neuropediatrics 2021 Aug;52(4):252-260. Epub 2021 Jun 30 doi: 10.1055/s-0041-1730937. PMID: 34192790
Resende LL, de Paiva ARB, Kok F, da Costa Leite C, Lucato LT
Radiographics 2019 Jan-Feb;39(1):153-168. doi: 10.1148/rg.2019180081. PMID: 30620693
Eichler F, Duncan C, Musolino PL, Orchard PJ, De Oliveira S, Thrasher AJ, Armant M, Dansereau C, Lund TC, Miller WP, Raymond GV, Sankar R, Shah AJ, Sevin C, Gaspar HB, Gissen P, Amartino H, Bratkovic D, Smith NJC, Paker AM, Shamir E, O'Meara T, Davidson D, Aubourg P, Williams DA
N Engl J Med 2017 Oct 26;377(17):1630-1638. Epub 2017 Oct 4 doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1700554. PMID: 28976817Free PMC Article

Recent systematic reviews

Koto Y, Ueki S, Yamakawa M, Sakai N
JBI Evid Synth 2024 Jul 1;22(7):1262-1302. doi: 10.11124/JBIES-23-00303. PMID: 38533650Free PMC Article
Mallack EJ, Turk BR, Yan H, Price C, Demetres M, Moser AB, Becker C, Hollandsworth K, Adang L, Vanderver A, Van Haren K, Ruzhnikov M, Kurtzberg J, Maegawa G, Orchard PJ, Lund TC, Raymond GV, Regelmann M, Orsini JJ, Seeger E, Kemp S, Eichler F, Fatemi A
J Inherit Metab Dis 2021 May;44(3):728-739. Epub 2021 Jan 9 doi: 10.1002/jimd.12356. PMID: 33373467Free PMC Article
Regelmann MO, Kamboj MK, Miller BS, Nakamoto JM, Sarafoglou K, Shah S, Stanley TL, Marino R; Pediatric Endocrine Society Drug and Therapeutics/Rare Diseases Committee
J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2018 Nov 1;103(11):4324-4331. doi: 10.1210/jc.2018-00920. PMID: 30289543
Boudes PF
Eur J Intern Med 2014 Jan;25(1):31-6. Epub 2013 Oct 12 doi: 10.1016/j.ejim.2013.09.009. PMID: 24129166
Borry P, Fryns JP, Schotsmans P, Dierickx K
Genet Couns 2005;16(4):341-52. PMID: 16440876

Supplemental Content

Table of contents

    Clinical resources

    Practice guidelines

    • PubMed
      See practice and clinical guidelines in PubMed. The search results may include broader topics and may not capture all published guidelines. See the FAQ for details.
    • Bookshelf
      See practice and clinical guidelines in NCBI Bookshelf. The search results may include broader topics and may not capture all published guidelines. See the FAQ for details.

    Curated

    • ACMG ACT, 2023
      American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics, Newborn Screening ACT Sheet, Elevated lysophosphatidylcholines, X-Linked Adrenoleukodystrophy (X-ALD), 2023
    • ACMG Algorithm, 2023
      ACMG Algorithm, X-ALD: Elevated lysophosphatidylcholines C24:0, C26:0, 2023
    • AAP, 2021
      Leukodystrophies in Children: Diagnosis, Care, and Treatment, Pediatrics (2021) 148 (3): e2021053126.
    • EuroGentest, 2011
      Clinical utility gene card for: adrenoleukodystrophy.

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