INTRODUCTION

From birth until weaning to solid feed, calves undergo tremendous physiologic and metabolic changes (Toullec and Guilloteau, 1989; Meale et al., 2017). During the preruminant stage, digestion and metabolism are similar to those of nonruminant animals, and dietary requirements must be met with high-quality liquid diets containing sources of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats that are digested efficiently. The most critical period is the first 2 to 3 weeks of life when the calf's digestive system is immature but developing rapidly with regard to digestive secretions and enzymatic activity (Toullec and Guilloteau, 1989; Davis and Drackley, 1998).

Except for calves raised for veal production, calves should be encouraged to consume solid feed at an early age to stimulate development of a functional rumen. Development of the ruminal epithelial tissue that is responsible for absorption of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) is stimulated by the VFAs, particularly butyrate, produced by ruminal microbes (Sander et al., 1959). A starter concentrate high in readily fermentable carbohydrates supports development of the microbiota and its fermentation necessary for proper ruminal tissue growth (Brownlee, 1956; Flatt et al., 1958; Williams and Frost, 1992; Greenwood et al., 1997). The functioning rumen epithelium can absorb and metabolize the VFAs, which aids in raising ruminal pH to levels suitable for fiber fermentation.

The rumen and its microbial population are immature at this stage (Anderson et al., 1987a,b, and ruminal cellulose digestibility is limited (Williams and Frost, 1992). Consequently, forages other than fresh grass that is high in sugars (Ohtani et al., 1976) are not effective in developing a functional rumen and may limit metabolizable energy (ME) intake (MEI) in young calves (Stobo et al., 1966). Calves have limited ability to use forages until well after weaning (Quigley, 1996a; Davis and Drackley, 1998). Nevertheless, adequate particle size of starter feed—whether pelleted, ground, or texturized—is important to prevent abnormal development and keratinization of ruminal papillae and to prevent impaction of fine particles between papillae (McGavin and Morrill, 1976; Greenwood et al., 1997; Beharka et al., 1998).

With respect to the nutrient requirements of the calf, three phases for development of digestive function are recognized (Davis and Clark, 1981):

• Liquid-feeding phase. Essentially all of the nutrient requirements are met by milk or milk replacer (MR). The functional reticular (esophageal) groove shunts liquid feeds directly to the omasum to avoid microbial breakdown in the reticulorumen (Orskov, 1972).
• Transition phase. Liquid feed and starter contribute to meeting the nutrient requirements. Starter enables development of the reticulorumen.
• Ruminant phase. The calf derives its nutrients from solid feeds, primarily through microbial fermentation in the reticulorumen. Ruminal fermentation and microbial protein synthesis are not yet mature during the early stages of this phase.

Similar to the previous edition (NRC, 2001), this chapter discusses the nutrient requirements of calves in each of these phases, but in this edition, the committee made the following changes: (1) empty body weight (EBW) was used for all calculations; (2) an equation to estimate starter intake was added; (3) energy requirements were updated and include different maintenance requirements for different classes of animals, breeds, and environmental conditions, and estimating composition of body gain was included and efficiency of ME use for gain was updated; (4) calculation of feed ME values was revised; (5) a new metabolizable protein system (MP) was used; and (6) mineral requirement system was changed and some vitamin recommendations were revised. For purposes of estimating nutrient requirements, it is assumed that cattle less than 18 percent of mature body weight (MatBW; 125 kg for Holsteins with mature weight of 700 kg) are calves and those that are >18 percent are heifers. Growth requirements for the latter are discussed in Chapter 11.

BODY WEIGHT CONVERSIONS

All calculations in this edition were made on an EBW basis unless otherwise noted. Factors for converting body weight (BW) into EBW for various calves and diets are in Table 10-1 and range from 0.85 to 0.96 (Diaz et al., 2001; Tikofsky et al., 2001; Blome et al., 2003; Meyer, 2005; Bartlett et al., 2006; Hill et al., 2008a; Mills et al., 2010; Stamey Lanier et al., 2021). Mathematically, if EBW as a proportion of BW is unchanged, then EBW gain (EBG) should be the same proportion to BW gain as the ratio of EBW/BW. However, because the ratio of EBW to BW decreases as the rumen develops, the ratio of EBG to average daily gain (ADG) will be less than the ratio of EBW to BW. Factors for converting ADG into EBG are in Table 10-1 (Meyer, 2005; Hill et al., 2008a; Stamey Lanier, 2021). For heavy veal calves (>125 kg), EBW was calculated as 0.93 BW based on data from Gerrits et al. (1996). The decrease in proportion of BW as EBW likely occurs because of the rapid change in solid feed intake and expansion of rumen and gut size. At any point during this changeover to solid feed, the change in EBW is less than the change in BW. Consequently, during weaning transition to solid food only, EBW/BW will be somewhere between 0.93 and 0.85, and as a result, EBG will be in the range of 0.5 to 0.6 ADG. The time course and implications in these changes in body composition during the weaning transition deserve further research.

DRY MATTER INTAKE

Historically, most dairy calves have not been fed milk or MR for ad libitum intake. Maximal dry matter intake (DMI) from milk or MR is about 2.25 percent of BW, with calves achieving DMI of 2 percent of BW during the first week of life (Jasper and Weary, 2002). Near ad libitum intake of MR dry matter (DM) increased to approximately 2.5 percent of BW for calves >65 kg (Diaz et al., 2001). For veal calves, voluntary intake of MR DM declines to less than 2 percent of BW by 120 kg BW (Gerrits et al., 1996).

For most herd replacements, calves are offered a fixed and limited quantity of milk or MR DM daily with ad libitum access to starter and, perhaps, limited amounts of forage. Total DMI during this period will increase as starter intake increases. In an analysis of 219 treatment means from 64 published studies (see later section on model evaluation), mean DMI for calves (<8 weeks old, BW = 54.5 ± 8.8 kg, mean ± SD) was 1.93 ± 0.33 percent of BW, with a range of 1.17 to 3.06 percent of BW. During the weaning process, DMI increases rapidly. From the same data summary (79 treatment means from 27 studies), intake of DM from solid feeds for weaned calves (>8 weeks old, BW = 95.6 ± 19.0 kg, mean ± SD) averaged 3.06 ± 0.31 percent of BW, with a range of 2.16 to 4.45 percent of BW.

Many factors affect starter intake in young calves, the most important of which are milk or MR DMI and age (Kertz et al., 1979). Other factors include initial BW, water availability, starter quality and physical form, and quality of MR (summarized by Davis and Drackley, 1998). Starter intake is highly variable, with coefficients of variation among published studies of 90 percent and 19 to 38 percent among similar studies conducted at the same location (Kertz et al., 1979). Much of this variability may be from individual calf differences in how quickly rumen pH is stabilized as solid feed begins to be consumed (Williams and Frost, 1992).

The committee developed models to predict starter intake for use with this edition. BW, daily MEI from the liquid diet (MEiLD), ADG, and time relative to first offer of starter (FPstarter) were used as independent variables. For calves in temperate climates, a model was developed using individual animal data (n = 26,952 observations from 1,356 calves) from 28 studies carried out in 4 U.S. states and the Netherlands (Georgia, n = 168; Illinois, n = 1,925; Minnesota, n = 6,052; Ohio, n = 16,457; and the Netherlands, n = 2,350). An external data set (n = 8,891 individual observations, nine studies) was developed to evaluate the models using data from four U.S. states (Iowa, n = 6,332; New Hampshire, n = 1,519; New York, n = 892; Virginia, n = 148). Intake of milk or MR ranged from 0.11 to 1.99 kg/d and starter intake from 0.00 to 2.85 kg/d. For calves in subtropical environments, equations to predict starter intake were developed using individual animal data (n = 3,491 observations from 853 calves) from 15 studies carried out in the United States and Brazil (Florida, n = 1,127; Georgia, n = 179; Brazil, n = 2,185). An independent data set (n = 479 individual observations, five studies) was used to evaluate the models using data from the United States and Brazil (Georgia, n = 96; Brazil, n = 383). Thus, 25 percent of studies (5 of 20 studies) were used for model evaluation. Intake of milk or MR DM ranged from 0.21 to 2.07 kg/d and starter intake from 0.00 to 1.93 kg/d.

For each environmental condition, two model-fitting approaches were used. First, a set of linear mixed models was developed using an automated model selection approach (“MuMIn” and “lme4” packages) and parallel computation in R (version 4.0.1). The linear mixed models included the random effect of study. Interactions and squared terms were tested. Then, the linear mixed models with the lowest Akaike information criterion (AIC) values were selected and evaluated. Second, for nonlinear models (exponential and logistic), the initial parameters were fitted using the “nls” function (nonlinear least squares) and plots from the “easynls” package. Then, the initial parameters were used to fit nonlinear mixed-effects regression using the “nlme” package in R. The random effect of study was added to the A coefficient. Nonlinear models with or without the random effect of study were evaluated, and adjustments with different fixed effects were tested. Finally, the best models from the external validation were selected based on small AIC values from derivation, high concordance correlation coefficient (CCC), minimal slope and mean biases, and low root mean squared prediction error (RMSE). The best models from the external evaluation were reevaluated using a repeated K-fold cross-validation (n = 500, k = 10) using both development and external databases to have more information about model performance.

The equation selected for calves in temperate conditions is as follows:

where BW is in kg, MEiLD is in Mcal/d, and FPstarter is in weeks. In the model, age is used as a proxy for week when starter is first offered, assuming starter was offered during first week of life. This model had an RMSE of 262 g/d, with a CCC of 0.71. The average R² using the development database in repeated K-fold cross-validation was 0.66 ± 0.01 and from the evaluation database was 0.67 ± 0.02.

The equation for calves in semitropical conditions is as follows:

This model had an RMSE of 222 g/d and a CCC of 0.78. When users enter an environmental temperature >35°C, Equation 10-2 is used. Otherwise Equation 10-1 is used.

ENERGY REQUIREMENTS OF CALVES

Maintenance Energy Requirements

Conceptually, maintenance is a simple idea, but its determination is fraught with difficulties, including whether to define it as the point of zero weight change or zero change in body energy. Methodological considerations also complicate measurement of maintenance, whether by calorimetric or comparative slaughter procedures. In previous NRC systems, net energy for maintenance (NEm) was defined as heat production (HP) at zero MEI, by extrapolation of the regression of HP on MEI to the y-intercept, plus an activity allowance. Labussiere et al. (2009, 2011) proposed a method to calculate maintenance that considered increases in apparent maintenance HP with increasing MEI prior to determination of fasting heat production. Others (ARC, 1980; Moe, 1981) have argued against the use of measured fasting HP as a baseline for maintenance. Regardless of methodology, reliable estimates of maintenance are necessary for defining energy use by growing calves.

The second component of maintenance has been an allowance for activity, typically 10 percent of NEm. Thus, the NEm value adopted by NRC (2001) was 0.086 Mcal/kg BW^0.75, which was similar to calorimetric data from the USDA Beltsville station, where activity was embedded in the total estimate of NEm. Others have argued that the activity allowance is too high for growing cattle, which would inflate estimates of maintenance (Ainslie et al., 1992; Van Amburgh et al., 1998). Labussiere et al. (2008b, 2009, 2011) measured the energy cost of standing activity in veal calves by calorimetry and found that it accounted for about 3.5 to 8 percent of MEI, supporting the idea that a maintenance activity allowance of 10 percent is too large. The NEm value determined by extrapolation of regression equations to zero MEI in comparative slaughter experiments would include the components of basal metabolism and activity and thus may be more reliable.

Maintenance energy requirements historically have been expressed relative to BW^0.75, but this relationship has not been evaluated experimentally in dairy calves until recently (Labussière et al., 2008b). Those researchers found that expressing BW raised to a power of 0.85 best fit the data and minimized variation for fasting heat production measured by calorimetry in Holstein veal calves over a range of BW from 73 to 221 kg. Furthermore, use of the coefficient 0.75 resulted in significantly different estimates compared with the exponents 0.80, 0.85, or 0.90. However, use of 0.85 as the exponent to calculate metabolic BW in the current database increased variation in estimates of energy relationships, and thus the exponent 0.75 continues to be used in this revision.

Heat production was calculated as the difference between MEI and retained energy (RE), where RE was calculated from the increase in body energy content between baseline calves slaughtered at the start of the feeding period and calves at the end of the feeding period (Lofgreen and Garrett, 1968). The NEm was calculated as the intercept (a) of the equation of exponential regression (NEm = a × e^b × ^MEI) when MEI = 0, as described by Ferrell and Jenkins (1998a,b). In this equation, NEm = heat production in units of Mcal/EBW^0.75 per day, MEI = metabolizable energy intake (Mcal/EBW^0.75 per day), and a and b are equation parameters. Regressions explored data from all calves, Holstein calves fed milk or MR only, Holstein calves fed milk or MR plus solid feed, and Jersey calves fed MR or milk only. Study was included as a random effect in a nonlinear mixed model using R software. Treatments that were known to be protein deficient in Bartlett et al. (2006) were removed as were data for two extreme outliers, leaving 235 observations for the analysis. From multiple regression analyses, the committee concluded that separate values for maintenance could not be justified among those groups. Therefore, for small or large breed calves fed milk or MR without or with starter, the final nonlinear equation was as follows (see Figure 10-1a):

FIGURE 10-1

Relationship between daily HP and MEI (both as Mcal/kg BW^0.75) and plots of observed − predicted versus predicted and residuals.

HP, Mcal/EBW^0.75 = 0.077 × e^(3.3426 × MEI, ^{Mcal/EBW0.75)} (RMSE = 0.011, CCC = 0.950)

(Equation 10-3)

Analysis of regressions and residuals indicated no mean or slope bias (see Figure 10-1b). The NEm derived from the intercept (0.077 Mcal/EBW^0.75) is considerably lower than the value established by previous NRC committees (0.086 Mcal/BW^0.75; NRC 1989, 2001) but is in the range of estimates by others (ARC, 1980; NRC, 1978; Silva et al., 2017) and the value used by the beef NASEM (2016).

By the iterative method, the ME requirement for maintenance (MEm, Mcal/EBW^0.75 per day) was determined as the point where MEI and heat production are equal (i.e., the point at which there is no energy retention in the body) (Lofgreen and Garrett, 1968). MEm was determined to be 0.107 Mcal/kg EBW^0.75, or 0.101 Mcal/kg BW^0.75, which is similar to the value used by NRC (2001) as well as others (ARC, 1980; Labussiere et al., 2007). The efficiency of use of ME for maintenance (k_m) was calculated as the ratio between the NE and MEm. The resulting value (0.719) also is lower than the value (0.86) used previously by NRC (2001) but is similar to the efficiency values of 0.726 and 0.706 from INRA (2019) and Silva et al. (2017), respectively.

Based on the studies in the database with calves fed both starter and liquid feed (Meyer, 2005; Stamey Lanier et al., 2021), their maintenance energy requirements were about 2 percent higher than calves fed milk only, but these were not statistically different. Greater requirements as calves consume solid feeds might be predicted, as the size of metabolically active organs, such as the gastrointestinal tract and liver, increases along with rumen development.

The NEm for weaned heifers up to 125 kg BW was set to 0.097 Mcal/kg EBW^0.75 (0.0825 Mcal/kg BW^0.75), based on estimates from Stamey Lanier (2021) and Meyer (2005). This value is intermediate between the preweaned and growing heifer values (see Chapter 11). The corresponding MEm values are 0.138 Mcal ME/kg EBW^0.75 or 0.117 Mcal ME/kg BW^0.75. These values are higher than NRC (2001) but lower than those in other systems (ARC, 1980; INRA, 2019). The National Academies Beef Model (NASEM, 2016) set maintenance NEm for growing dairy breed calves to 0.095 Mcal/kg BW^0.75, or 0.112 Mcal/kg EBW^0.75. Assuming an efficiency of ME use for maintenance of about 0.70 implicit in the beef guidelines (NASEM, 2016), these equate to 0.137 Mcal ME/kg BW^0.75 and 0.160 Mcal ME/kg EBW^0.75. Because of the paucity of body composition studies with weaned calves in this weight range, additional data are needed to more accurately model requirements for maintenance.

Based on the very limited data available for estimation of energy requirements for milk-fed Jersey calves (Bascom et al., 2007), the determined coefficient for NEm was about 6.6 percent greater and the coefficient for MEm about 15.1 percent greater than that for Holstein calves fed milk (not statistically significant). The comparative slaughter data from Bascom et al. (2007) are directionally consistent with observations by others that maintenance for Jersey calves may be up to 20 percent greater than Holsteins (Ballou and DePeters, 2008; Ballou, 2012; Van Amburgh et al., 2019), even when corrected by use of metabolic BW. The discrepancy may be attributable to the ratios of surface area to body mass. Brody (1945) found that surface area in Holstein cattle from 41 to 617 kg BW was described by the equation 0.14 × BW^0.57. Consequently, surface area to mass ratios are greater in calves that are smaller than the average Holstein calf, so rate of heat loss would increase more than predicted by BW^0.75 alone. In turn, the metabolic rate and hence maintenance HP would be greater in smaller Jersey calves. However, in the absence of sufficient data, the committee left the values the same as for large-breed calves. Additional research is needed to better define the requirements of small-breed calves.

TABLE 10-1Ratios of EBW to BW and Energy Requirements for Maintenance^a

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Item	Milk or Milk Replacer Only		Milk or Milk Replacer Plus Solid Feed		Weaned, Solid Feeds Only
	Holstein/Large Breed	Jersey/Small Breed	Holstein/Large Breed	Jersey/Small Breed	Holstein/Large Breed	Jersey/Small Breed
EBW/BW	0.94	0.94	0.93	0.93	0.85	0.85
EBG/ADG	0.94	0.94	0.91	0.91	0.85	0.85
NEm, kcal/kg EBW0.75	76.9	76.9	76.9	76.9	97.0	97.0
NEm, kcal/kg BW0.75	72.3	72.3	72.3	72.3	82.5	82.5
MEm, kcal/kg EBW0.75	107.0	107.0	113.8	113.8	Varb	Varb
MEm, kcal/kg BW0.75	100.0	100.0	105.8	105.8	Varb	Varb
Efficiency of ME use for NEm, km	0.72	0.72	0.69	0.69	Varb	Varb

a

Expressed as a function of metabolic EBW or live BW and efficiency of ME use for NEm (k_m).

b

Determined as efficiency of solid feed use (as determined from ME density by Equation 10-4).

The efficiency of use of ME from solid feeds is calculated from the ratio of NEm to ME using the equation from Galyean et al. (2016), as follows:

(Equation 10-4)

where ME is expressed in terms of Mcal/kg DM. Over the range of ME values encountered for starters (i.e., 2.5 to 3.5 Mcal/kg DM), efficiencies would vary only from 0.60 to 0.64. The overall dietary efficiency of ME use is calculated as the weighted mean of ME provided by liquid and solid feeds as in the previous edition (NRC, 2001).

EFFECTS OF SOURCES OF ENERGY

Energy requirements are calculated as ME regardless of whether the source of ME is fat, carbohydrate, or protein. Nevertheless, source of energy may alter partitioning of nutrients, growth, and health.

PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS

Similar to the previous edition, the model is driven on the basis of ME-allowable gain, with protein requirements calculated for maintenance and the predicted growth rate. In this edition, the committee adopted use of MP instead of apparently digestible protein (ADP) used in the previous edition (NRC, 2001).

Rumen Microbial Protein

Developing rumen function has profound effects on the supply of nutrients to the calf. Resident bacteria ferment ingested starter and forage and produce VFAs and microbial crude protein (MCP), which becomes a source of AAs for the calf. Increasing fermentation occurs with increasing intake of fermentable carbohydrate, so that the flow of microbial N becomes a greater proportion of the total N reaching the intestine (Leibholz, 1975, 1978; Quigley et al., 1985; Lallès and Poncet, 1990; Obitsu et al., 1995). Quigley and Schwab (1988) reported a high correlation (r = 0.92) between calf starter intake and percentage of N as microbial N in abomasal contents of calves from 2 to 11 weeks of age, suggesting that the key driver to changing the nature of abomasal N was intake of dry feed.

A meta-analysis was conducted using studies that reported the ratio of microbial N to total N in abomasal or duodenal content of calves from 2 to 20 weeks of age (see Table 10-3). A total of 66 observations were used in the analysis using the techniques outlined by St-Pierre (2001). A subsequent broken-line regression analysis was conducted using methods by Robbins et al. (2006) to determine the DMI at which no further increase in microbial contribution as a proportion of total N occurred. Microbial N as a proportion of total N increased with increasing DMI to 1.3 kg/d; thereafter, microbial N contribution was constant, as defined by the broken-line regression (see Figure 10-2). Thus, once starter intake reaches 1.3 kg/d, the proportion of total CP reaching the intestine for digestion that is of microbial origin will be maximized.

FIGURE 10-2

Broken-line regression (A) and residuals (B) of contribution of microbial N to total N to dry feed DMI in calves from 0 to 20 weeks of age. Data derived from meta-analysis of four published studies. The breakpoint occurred at 1.32 kg/d (SE = 0.118), resulting (more...)

TABLE 10-3Studies Comprising the Data Used to Relate DMI to Microbial N Flow

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Reference	N	Forage (%)	Age (Weeks)	DMI (kg/d)	MNa (%)
Lallès and Poncet, 1990	6	20	9–20	0.8–2.4	60–68
Leibholz, 1975	8	15	6–13	0.6–2.5	32–74
Leibholz, 1978	5	15	6–10	0.8–1.8	28–70
Obitsu et al., 1995	8	30–40	10–15	1.5–2.4	48–64
Quigley et al., 1985	39	0/ad libitumb	2–11	0.1–3.1	6–83

a

Microbial N flow as percentage of total N flow at the abomasum or duodenum.

b

Half of calves had ad libitum access to long grass hay.

Based on these data, conversion efficiency of CP to MP for ruminating calves consuming starter is set at 0.70 (NRC, 1978). Insufficient data were available to allow calculations of the amounts of rumen-degradable protein or rumen-undegradable protein (RUP) supplied with any degree of confidence. However, assuming that N flow to the abomasum approximates N intake, that microbial CP is 80 percent true protein that is 80 percent digestible (see Chapter 6), and that undegraded feed proteins are 0.80 digestible (NRC, 1989) leads to a conversion of CP to MP of about 0.71. The efficiency used in this edition (0.70) is slightly lower than the value of 0.75 from ARC (1980) used in the last version of this publication (NRC, 2001). Use of the lower value provides more consistent predictions of literature values. Conversions of CP to MP for calves fed starter and milk or starter and MR are assumed to be additive based on the relative amounts of CP supplied by starter and milk (or MR).

CALCULATION OF METABOLIZABLE ENERGY VALUES OF FEEDS

Milk, MR, and ingredients used in MR use different coefficients for digestibility and a different method for calculating ME than solid feeds. When users select “calf” as the target animal, ingredients listed under “calf feeds” must be used for the liquid feeds in the diet. Starter feeds and ingredients used to make starter feeds follow the protocols set out for feeds for other classes of cattle as described in Chapters 3 and 19. Composition data are shown for the most common ingredients used in manufacture of MR in Table 10-4.

The ME values of liquid feeds are calculated similarly to the previous edition with modifications. First, the gross energy (GE) of the feed is calculated by multiplying the percentage composition on a DM basis by the respective heats of combustion, according to the following formula:

(Equation 10-16)

where values are on a DM basis. FA concentration is better than crude fat (CF) for nutritional characterization (see Chapter 4) of feeds, and it is used in Equation 10-16; however, many feed labels such as those on MR are based on CF. CF from ingredients commonly used in MRs can be converted to FA by multiplying CF by 0.945 (Paul and Southgate, 1978). Feeds can contain other organic compounds such as partially hydrolyzed starch, dextrins, glucose, or glycerol that may be incorporated in small amounts (usually less than 10 percent of DM in aggregate) into MR. This fraction is assumed to have the same heat of combustion as lactose (4 Mcal/kg). Values for whole milk are determined similarly after converting the composition to a DM basis.

Ash content normally is not listed on feed tags but generally will be 6 to 12 percent of total MR DM. Because ash has no energy, it affects the ME value and should always be determined analytically. Users are cautioned that feed tag values for MR components are given on an “as fed” or air-dry basis, which for MR is usually 95 to 97 percent DM. Failure to account for this residual moisture will introduce error into the calculation of ME.

The ME values for MR then are derived by multiplying the gross energy content by 0.91, which is the product of the average digestibility (0.95) and metabolizability of the digestible energy (DE) (0.96) for MR (Gerrits et al., 1996; Diaz et al., 2001; Blome et al., 2003; Labussiere et al., 2007, 2008a). For whole milk, the GE is multiplied by 0.93 because of the slightly higher digestibility for milk (0.97; NRC, 2001).

The DE values for solid feeds are calculated as in Chapter 3 with the exception that the digestibility coefficient for fat is assumed to be 0.81 rather than 0.74 as for older cattle. The coefficient of 0.81 for fat digestibility represents the average of studies that measured digestibilities for CF in weaned calves (see Table 10-5). The DE was calculated without discounting for intake or starch concentration (i.e., intake was set at 3.5 percent of BW and dietary starch was assumed to be 25 percent in equations). The efficiency of converting DE to ME by young calves fed MR and various starters (Pattanaik et al., 2003) varied from 0.91 to 0.95; therefore, the ME of dry feeds was set at DE × 0.93. To derive accurate estimates, starter should be analyzed as described in Chapter 3.

For calves to achieve the calculated ME values, the rumen must be sufficiently developed to support near-mature rumen fermentation, both in terms of microbiota and rumen epithelial (papillae) development. In calves in which the development is not complete, digestibilities will be lower, particularly for neutral detergent fiber (NDF) (Terre et al., 2007; Hill et al., 2010; Chapman et al., 2016). This situation may be a problem when calves are fed large amounts of milk or MR early in life, which limits the intake of calf starter. If such calves are weaned too early, rumen development may be incomplete so that the ME obtained by the calf is less than estimated. While rumen development depends on roughly 3 weeks of starter consumption, Quigley et al. (2019b) found that the cumulative intake of nonstructural carbohydrates was most highly related to digestion and achievement of predicted ME values. Because this variable will be difficult to determine on farm, the committee has incorporated a somewhat arbitrary discount of 10 percent of calculated ME of starter for preweaned calves consuming ≥1.5 percent of BW as milk or MR solids. The option to use this adjustment can be turned on or off by the user within the computer software.

VALIDATION OF MODEL WITH EXPERIMENTAL DATA

To evaluate the ability of the model to predict values from the literature, the committee assembled a database of 416 treatment means from 94 published studies that provided enough information to estimate MEIs, BW, and BW gains (see Table 10-6). Studies included some that were conducted before the previous NRC (2001) document as well as those conducted since and represented a range of milk or MR intakes, starter intakes, and ADG.

Studies included calves fed milk or MR only (21 studies), calves fed milk or MR plus starter without or with forage (64 studies), and weaned calves (23 studies). The ME densities of liquid and solid feeds were calculated according to the methods described in this chapter, including discounted ME for starter when early milk intakes were greater than 1.5 percent of BW. Mean BW was calculated as the average of BW at the beginning of the growth period and BW at the end of the period, and ADG was calculated for that period. Maintenance ME was calculated, including any requirements for thermoregulation, which was subtracted from total MEI to yield ME for gain. The MEg was multiplied by the efficiency of ME use for gain, resulting in NE (i.e., RE). Rearrangement of Equation 10-6 as shown in Equation 10-17 allowed calculation of both ME-allowable and MP-allowable EBW gain and then ADG:

(Equation 10-17)

The more limiting of ME-allowable or MP-allowable ADG was compared with the actual ADG reported in the studies. The regression of observed study ADG on model predicted ADG (pADG), with study as a random effect, resulted in the following equation:

(Equation 10-18)

This model resulted in a mean predicted value of 0.679 kg/d compared with an observed mean of 0.689 kg/d, with an RMSE of 0.110 kg/d (15.9 percent of the mean). The plots of observed versus predicted values and residuals are shown in Figure 10-3. The model RMSEP was 0.110. The CCC was 0.95. The model, therefore, was robust in predicting calf growth.

FIGURE 10-3

Observed minus predicted values for ADG from 397 literature treatment means, with residuals plotted. The ADGs were predicted with Equation 10-18, and the studies used (see Table 10-6) represented a wide range of years published, amounts of milk or MR (more...)

A comparison of ADG predicted by Equation 10-18 with ADG predicted by the equation from the previous edition (NRC, 2001) was made for a randomly chosen subset of 111 means from the studies listed in Table 10-6. Predictions of observed ADG by the current model and by the model from NRC (2001) are shown in Figure 10-4. For this subset of studies, the regression of observed versus predicted values using Equation 10-18 was 0.98x + 0.01, with an RMSE of 0.12, an AIC of –171.0, and a CCC of 0.93. For the NRC (2001) prediction, the equation was 1.01x – 0.09, with an RMSE of 0.16, an AIC of –120, and a CCC of 0.85. The NRC (2001) model showed significant mean bias (21.6 percent of MSE). Therefore, the model fit and predictions in the current edition are an improvement over the previous model (NRC, 2001), particularly for calves at low ADG and for those receiving both milk or MR and starter.

FIGURE 10-4

Comparison of actual mean ADG from 111 treatment means from the literature with values predicted by the current model or the previous (NRC, 2001) model.

ENERGY AND PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS FOR CALVES

Examples of requirements for ME and MP for various classes of calves are in Tables 10-7 through 10-11. The DMI listed in the tables has been computed as the amount of DM necessary to meet the ME requirement. Consequently, these should not be construed as predictions of voluntary feed intake, which was discussed in a previous section.

MINERAL AND VITAMIN REQUIREMENTS OF CALVES

PRACTICAL FEEDING CONSIDERATIONS

OTHER ASPECTS OF CALF NUTRITION

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