| Study (location) | Study design | Population | Relative risk (95% confidence interval) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Seidman et al. 1990 ** § (Israel) | Cross-sectional study Postpartum interview | 14,477 infants of nonsmokers | 1.5 (0.7-2.8) for major birth defects
*
1.1 (0.9-1.5) for minor birth defects * |
| Savitz et al. 1991 ** § >§<§ (California) | Prospective cohort of health maintenance organization members | 14,685 infants of nonsmokers and smokers | 2.4 (0.6-9.3) for hydrocephalus 2.0 (0.9-4.3) for ventricular septal defect 2.0 (0.6-6.4) for urethral stenosis 1.7 (0.5-6.0) for cleft lip and/or palate 0.6 (0.2-2.5) for neural tube defects (All results adjusted for smoking) |
| Zhang et al. 1992 ** § (China) | Case-control study Interview in hospital | Infants of nonsmokers 1,012 cases 1,012 controls | 1.2 (1.0-1.5) for all birth
defects 1.6 for cleft palate¶ <1.5 for hydrocephalus¶ <1.0 for ventricular septal defect¶ 2.0 (1.1-3.7) for neural tube defects |
| Shaw et al. 1996 ¶¶ *** (California) | Case-control study of orofacial clefts | Infants of nonsmokers 487 cases 554 controls | 2.0 (1.2-3.4) for isolated cleft lip and/or
palate, for home exposure to
ETS¶¶
9.8 (1.1-218.0) for isolated cleft lip and/or palate with A2 allele for transforming growth factor alpha, for any ETS exposure |
| Wasserman et al. 1996 *** (California) | Case-control study of three types of birth defects | 207 infants with conotruncal heart
defects 264 infants with neural tube defects 178 infants with limb-reduction defects 481 control infants | 1.3 (0.8-2.1) for conotruncal defects, for
ETS at home 1.7 (0.9-3.0) for conotruncal defects, for ETS at work 1.2 (0.8-1.9) for neural tube defects, for ETS at home or work 1.3 (0.8-2.1) for limb-reduction defects, for ETS at home 1.4 (0.7-2.5) for limb-reduction defects, for ETS at work |
Adjustment did not change relative risk.
Confidence intervals were calculated by using data from the published report of the study.
For Seidman et al. 1990, ETS exposure was defined as paternal smoking of >30 cigarettes/day. For Savitz et al. 1991 and Zhang et al. 1992, ETS exposure was defined as any paternal smoking.
Included maternal smokers. Results are adjusted for maternal smoking.
Not significant (p > 0.05).
Besides paternal smoking, other sources of ETS exposure were examined, including exposure of mothers at home and at work.
ETS exposure at home was defined as at least weekly tobacco smoking in the home within 6 feet of the mother, during the period from 1 month before to 3 months after conception.
Risk of orofacial clefts was slightly but not significantly elevated with paternal smoking around the time of conception and with ETS exposure at work.
ETS exposure was defined as others smoking at home, work, and/or other places and was assessed in maternal nonsmokers. Paternal smoking was evaluated separately.
From: Chapter 3. Health Consequences of Tobacco Use Among Women
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