Acrylamide

Residual acrylamide monomer occurs in polyacrylamide coagulants used in the treatment of drinking-water. In general, the maximum authorized dose of polymer is 1 mg/l. At a monomer content of 0.05%, this corresponds to a maximum theoretical concentration of 0.5 μg/l of the monomer in water. Practical concentrations may be lower by a factor of 2–3. This applies to the anionic and non-ionic polyacrylamides, but residual levels from cationic polyacrylamides may be higher. Polyacrylamides are also used as grouting agents in the construction of drinking-water reservoirs and wells. Human exposure is much greater from food than from drinking-water, owing to the formation of acrylamide in foods (e.g. breads, fried and roasted foods) cooked at high temperatures.

Following ingestion, acrylamide is readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and widely distributed in body fluids. Acrylamide can cross the placenta. It is neurotoxic, affects germ cells and impairs reproductive function. In mutagenicity assays, acrylamide was negative in the Ames test but induced gene mutations in mammalian cells and chromosomal aberrations in vitro and in vivo. In a long-term carcinogenicity study in rats exposed via drinking-water, acrylamide induced scrotal, thyroid and adrenal tumours in males and mammary, thyroid and uterine tumours in females. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has placed acrylamide in Group 2A (probably carcinogenic to humans). The Joint Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)/World Health Organization (WHO) Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) has recently noted concerns regarding the carcinogenicity and neurotoxicity of acrylamide and concluded that dietary exposure should be reduced to as low a level as technically achievable. Recent data have shown that exposure to acrylamide from cooked food is much higher than previously thought. As it is difficult to control the intake of acrylamide from food, it is very important that the acrylamide content of polyacrylamide used as a coagulant aid in water treatment, the most important source of drinking-water contamination by acrylamide, be as low as possible and that polyacrylamide not be overdosed in an attempt to take a shortcut to improving coagulation.

Alachlor

Alachlor (Chemical Abstracts Service [CAS] No. 15972-60-8) is a pre-emergence and post-emergence herbicide used to control annual grasses and many broad-leaved weeds in maize and a number of other crops. It is lost from soil mainly through volatilization, photodegradation and biodegradation. Many alachlor degradation products have been identified in soil. Alachlor was included in the Prior Informed Consent procedure of the Rotterdam Convention on the basis of the final regulatory actions taken by the European Community and by Canada to ban alachlor as a pesticide.

On the basis of available experimental data, evidence for the genotoxicity of alachlor is considered to be equivocal. However, a metabolite of alachlor, 2,6-diethylaniline, has been shown to be mutagenic. Available data from two studies in rats clearly indicate that alachlor is carcinogenic, causing benign and malignant tumours of the nasal turbinate, malignant stomach tumours and benign thyroid tumours.

Aldicarb

Aldicarb (CAS No. 116-06-3) is a systemic pesticide used to control nematodes in soil and insects and mites on a variety of crops. It is very soluble in water and highly mobile in soil. It degrades mainly by biodegradation and hydrolysis, persisting for weeks to months.

Aldicarb is one of the most acutely toxic pesticides in use, although the only consistently observed toxic effect with both long-term and single-dose administration is acetylcholinesterase inhibition. It is converted to the sulfoxide and sulfone. Aldicarb sulfoxide is a more potent inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase than aldicarb itself, whereas aldicarb sulfone is considerably less toxic than either aldicarb or the sulfoxide. The weight of evidence indicates that aldicarb, aldicarb sulfoxide and aldicarb sulfone are not genotoxic or carcinogenic. IARC has concluded that aldicarb is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity (Group 3).

Aldrin and dieldrin

Aldrin (CAS No. 309-00-2) and dieldrin (CAS No. 60-57-1) are chlorinated pesticides that are used against soil-dwelling pests, for wood protection and, in the case of dieldrin, against insects of public health importance. Since the early 1970s, many countries have either severely restricted or banned the use of both compounds, particularly in agriculture. The two compounds are closely related with respect to their toxicology and mode of action. Aldrin is rapidly converted to dieldrin under most environmental conditions and in the body. Dieldrin is a highly persistent organochlorine compound that has low mobility in soil, can be lost to the atmosphere and bioaccumulates. Dietary exposure to aldrin/dieldrin is very low and decreasing.

Both compounds are highly toxic in experimental animals, and cases of poisoning in humans have occurred. Aldrin and dieldrin have more than one mechanism of toxicity. The target organs are the central nervous system and the liver. In long-term studies, dieldrin was shown to produce liver tumours in both sexes of two strains of mice. It did not produce an increase in tumours in rats and does not appear to be genotoxic. IARC has classified aldrin and dieldrin in Group 3 (not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans). Exposure through food has decreased significantly with the dramatic reduction in use.

Aluminium

Aluminium is the most abundant metallic element and constitutes about 8% of Earth's crust. Aluminium salts are widely used in water treatment as coagulants to reduce organic matter, colour, turbidity and microorganism levels. Such use may lead to increased concentrations of aluminium in finished water. Where residual concentrations are high, undesirable colour and turbidity may ensue. Concentrations of aluminium at which such problems may occur are highly dependent on a number of water quality parameters and operational factors at the water treatment plant. Aluminium intake from foods, particularly those containing aluminium compounds used as food additives, represents the major route of aluminium exposure for the general public. The contribution of drinking-water to the total oral exposure to aluminium is usually less than 5% of the total intake.

There is little indication that orally ingested aluminium is acutely toxic to humans despite the widespread occurrence of the element in foods, drinking-water and many antacid preparations. It has been hypothesized that aluminium exposure is a risk factor for the development or acceleration of onset of Alzheimer disease in humans. The 1997 WHO Environmental Health Criteria document for aluminium concludes that:

On the whole, the positive relationship between aluminium in drinking-water and AD [Alzheimer disease], which was demonstrated in several epidemiological studies, cannot be totally dismissed. However, strong reservations about inferring a causal relationship are warranted in view of the failure of these studies to account for demonstrated confounding factors and for total aluminium intake from all sources.

Taken together, the relative risks for AD from exposure to aluminium in drinking-water above 100 μg/l, as determined in these studies, are low (less than 2.0). But, because the risk estimates are imprecise for a variety of methodological reasons, a population-attributable risk cannot be calculated with precision. Such imprecise predictions may, however, be useful in making decisions about the need to control exposures to aluminium in the general population.

In 2007, JECFA developed a PTWI for aluminium from all sources of 1 mg/kg body weight. JECFA concluded the following:

… the available studies have many limitations and are not adequate for defining the dose–response relationships. The Committee therefore based its evaluation on the combined evidence from several studies. The relevance of studies involving administration of aluminium compounds by gavage was unclear because the toxicokinetics after gavage were expected to differ from toxicokinetics after dietary administration, and the gavage studies generally did not report total aluminium exposure including basal levels in the feed. The studies conducted with dietary administration of aluminium compounds were considered most appropriate for the evaluation. The lowest LOELs [lowest-observed-effect levels] for aluminium in a range of different dietary studies in mice, rats and dogs were in the region of 50–75 mg/kg bw [body weight] per day expressed as Al.

The Committee applied an uncertainty factor of 100 to the lower end of this range of LOELs (50 mg/kg bw per day expressed as Al) to allow for inter- and intraspecies differences. There are deficiencies in the database, notably the absence of NOELs [no-observed-effect levels] in the majority of the studies evaluated and the absence of long-term studies on the relevant toxicological end-points. The deficiencies are counterbalanced by the probable lower bioavailability of the less soluble aluminium species present in food. Overall, an additional uncertainty factor of three was considered to be appropriate. The Committee confirmed that the resulting health-based guidance value should be expressed as a PTWI, because of the potential for bioaccumulation. The Committee established a PTWI of 1 mg/kg bw for Al, which applies to all aluminium compounds in food, including additives.

A health-based value derived from the JECFA PTWI would be 0.9 mg/l (rounded value), based on an allocation of 20% of the PTWI to drinking-water and assuming a 60 kg adult drinking 2 litres of water per day. However, there remain uncertainties as to the extent of aluminium absorption from drinking-water, which depends on a number of parameters, such as the aluminium salt administered, pH (for aluminium speciation and solubility), bioavailability and dietary factors.

The beneficial effects of the use of aluminium as a coagulant in water treatment are recognized. Taking this into account, and considering the health concerns about aluminium (i.e. its potential neurotoxicity), a practicable level is derived, based on optimization of the coagulation process in drinking-water plants using aluminium-based coagulants, to minimize aluminium levels in finished water.

Several approaches are available for minimizing residual aluminium concentrations in treated water. These include use of optimum pH in the coagulation process, avoiding excessive aluminium dosage, good mixing at the point of application of the coagulant, optimum paddle speeds for flocculation and efficient filtration of the aluminium floc. Under good operating conditions, concentrations of aluminium of 0.1 mg/l or less are achievable in large water treatment facilities. Small facilities (e.g. those serving fewer than 10 000 people) might experience some difficulties in attaining this level, because the small size of the plant provides little buffering for fluctuation in operation; moreover, such facilities often have limited resources and limited access to the expertise needed to solve specific operational problems. For these small facilities, 0.2 mg/l or less is a practicable level for aluminium in finished water.

As indicated above, a health-based value derived from the JECFA PTWI would be 0.9 mg/l (rounded value) based on an allocation of 20% of the PTWI to drinking-water and assuming a 60 kg adult drinking 2 litres of water per day. However, as also noted above, practicable levels based on optimization of the coagulation process in drinking-water plants using aluminium-based coagulants are less than 0.1 mg/l in large water treatment facilities and less than 0.2 mg/l in small facilities. In view of the importance of optimizing coagulation to prevent microbial contamination and the need to minimize deposition of aluminium floc in distribution systems, it is important to ensure that average residuals do not exceed these values.

Ammonia

The term ammonia includes the non-ionized (NH₃) and ionized (NH₄⁺) species. Ammonia in the environment originates from metabolic, agricultural and industrial processes and from disinfection with chloramine. Natural levels in groundwater and surface water are usually below 0.2 mg/l. Anaerobic groundwaters may contain up to 3 mg/l. Intensive rearing of farm animals can give rise to much higher levels in surface water. Ammonia contamination can also arise from cement mortar pipe linings. Ammonia in water is an indicator of possible bacterial, sewage and animal waste pollution.

Ammonia is a major component of the metabolism of mammals. Exposure from environmental sources is insignificant in comparison with endogenous synthesis of ammonia. Toxicological effects are observed only at exposures above about 200 mg/kg body weight.

Ammonia in drinking-water is not of immediate health relevance, and therefore no health-based guideline value is proposed. However, ammonia can compromise disinfection efficiency, result in nitrite formation in distribution systems, cause the failure of filters for the removal of manganese and cause taste and odour problems (see also chapter 10).

Antimony

Elemental antimony forms very hard alloys with copper, lead and tin. Antimony compounds have various therapeutic uses. Antimony is used in solders as a replacement for lead, but there is little evidence of any significant contribution to drinking-water concentrations from this source. Total exposure from environmental sources, food and drinking-water is very low compared with occupational exposure.

There has been a significant increase in the toxicity data available since the previous review, although much of it pertains to the intraperitoneal route of exposure. The form of antimony in drinking-water is a key determinant of the toxicity, and it would appear that antimony leached from antimony-containing materials would be in the form of the antimony(V) oxo-anion, which is the less toxic form. The subchronic toxicity of antimony trioxide is lower than that of potassium antimony tartrate, which is the most soluble form. Antimony trioxide, owing to its low bioavailability, is genotoxic only in some in vitro tests, but not in vivo, whereas soluble antimony(III) salts exert genotoxic effects in vitro and in vivo. Animal experiments from which the carcinogenic potential of soluble or insoluble antimony compounds may be quantified are not available. IARC has concluded that antimony trioxide is possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B) on the basis of an inhalation study in rats, but that antimony trisulfide was not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans (Group 3). However, chronic oral uptake of potassium antimony tartrate may not be associated with an additional carcinogenic risk, as antimony after inhalation exposure was carcinogenic only in the lung but not in other organs and is known to cause direct lung damage following chronic inhalation as a consequence of overload with insoluble particulates. Although there is some evidence for the carcinogenicity of certain antimony compounds by inhalation, there are no data to indicate carcinogenicity by the oral route.

Arsenic¹

Arsenic is found widely in Earth's crust in oxidation states of −3, 0, +3 and +5, often as sulfides or metal arsenides or arsenates. In water, it is mostly present as arsenate (+5), but in anaerobic conditions, it is likely to be present as arsenite (+3). It is usually present in natural waters at concentrations of less than 1–2 μg/l. However, in waters, particularly groundwaters, where there are sulfide mineral deposits and sedimentary deposits deriving from volcanic rocks, the concentrations can be significantly elevated.

Arsenic is found in the diet, particularly in fish and shellfish, in which it is found mainly in the less toxic organic form. There are only limited data on the proportion of inorganic arsenic in food, but these indicate that approximately 25% is present in the inorganic form, depending on the type of food. Apart from occupational exposure, the most important routes of exposure are through food and drinking-water, including beverages that are made from drinking-water. Where the concentration of arsenic in drinking-water is 10 μg/l or greater, this will be the dominant source of intake. In circumstances where soups or similar dishes are a staple part of the diet, the drinking-water contribution through preparation of food will be even greater.

Both pentavalent and trivalent soluble arsenic compounds are rapidly and extensively absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. Metabolism is characterized by 1) reduction of pentavalent to trivalent arsenic and 2) oxidative methylation of trivalent arsenic to form monomethylated, dimethylated and trimethylated products. Methylation of inorganic arsenic facilitates the excretion of inorganic arsenic from the body, as the end-products monomethylarsonic acid and dimethylarsinic acid are readily excreted in urine. There are major qualitative and quantitative interspecies differences in methylation, but in humans and most common laboratory animals, inorganic arsenic is extensively methylated, and the metabolites are excreted primarily in the urine. There is large interindividual variation in arsenic methylation in humans, probably due to a wide difference in the activity of methyltransferases and possible polymorphism. Ingested organoarsenicals are much less extensively metabolized and more rapidly eliminated in urine than inorganic arsenic.

Arsenic has not been demonstrated to be essential in humans. The acute toxicity of arsenic compounds in humans is predominantly a function of their rate of removal from the body. Arsine is considered to be the most toxic form, followed by the arsenites, the arsenates and organic arsenic compounds. Acute arsenic intoxication associated with the ingestion of well water containing very high concentrations (21.0 mg/l) of arsenic has been reported.

Signs of chronic arsenicism, including dermal lesions such as hyperpigmentation and hypopigmentation, peripheral neuropathy, skin cancer, bladder and lung cancers and peripheral vascular disease, have been observed in populations ingesting arsenic-contaminated drinking-water. Dermal lesions were the most commonly observed symptom, occurring after minimum exposure periods of approximately 5 years. Effects on the cardiovascular system were observed in children consuming arsenic-contaminated water (mean concentration 0.6 mg/l) for an average of 7 years.

Numerous epidemiological studies have examined the risk of cancers associated with arsenic ingestion through drinking-water. Many are ecological-type studies, and many suffer from methodological flaws, particularly in the measurement of exposure. However, there is overwhelming evidence that consumption of elevated levels of arsenic through drinking-water is causally related to the development of cancer at several sites. Nevertheless, there remain considerable uncertainty and controversy over both the mechanism of carcinogenicity and the shape of the dose–response curve at low intakes. The International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) concluded that long-term exposure to arsenic in drinking-water is causally related to increased risks of cancer in the skin, lungs, bladder and kidney, as well as other skin changes, such as hyperkeratosis and pigmentation changes. These effects have been demonstrated in many studies using different study designs. Exposure–response relationships and high risks have been observed for each of these end-points. The effects have been most thoroughly studied in Taiwan, China, but there is considerable evidence from studies on populations in other countries as well. Increased risks of lung and bladder cancer and of arsenic-associated skin lesions have been reported to be associated with ingestion of drinking-water at concentrations below 50 μg of arsenic per litre. There is a need for more analytical epidemiological studies to determine the dose–time response for skin lesions, as well as cancer, in order to assist in developing suitable interventions and determining practical intervention policies.

Inorganic arsenic compounds are classified by IARC in Group 1 (carcinogenic to humans) on the basis of sufficient evidence for carcinogenicity in humans and limited evidence for carcinogenicity in animals. Although there is a substantial database on the association between both internal and skin cancers and the consumption of arsenic in drinking-water, there remains considerable uncertainty over the actual risks at low concentrations. In its updated evaluation, the United States National Research Council concluded that “the available mode-of-action data on arsenic do not provide a biological basis for using either a linear or nonlinear extrapolation”. The maximum likelihood estimates, using a linear extrapolation, for bladder and lung cancer for populations in the United States of America (USA) exposed to arsenic at concentrations of 10 μg/l in drinking-water are, respectively, 12 and 18 per 10 000 population for females and 23 and 14 per 10 000 population for males. The actual numbers indicated by these estimated risks would be very difficult to detect by current epidemiological methods. There is also uncertainty over the contribution of arsenic in food—a higher intake of inorganic arsenic from food would lead to a lower risk estimate for water—and the impact of factors such as variation in the metabolism of arsenic and nutritional status. Some studies in areas with arsenic concentrations somewhat above 50 μg/l have not detected arsenic-related adverse effects in the residents. It remains possible that the estimates of cancer risk associated with various arsenic intakes are overestimates. The concentration of arsenic in drinking-water below which no effects can be observed remains to be determined, and there is an urgent need for identification of the mechanism by which arsenic causes cancer, which appears to be the most sensitive toxicity end-point.

The practical quantification limit for arsenic is in the region of 1–10 μg/l, and removal of arsenic to concentrations below 10 μg/l is difficult in many circumstances. In view of the practical difficulties in removing arsenic from drinking-water, particularly from small supplies, and the practical quantification limit for arsenic, the guideline value of 10 μg/l is retained as a goal and designated as provisional.

The provisional guideline value of 10 μg/l was previously supported by a JECFA PTWI of 15 μg/kg body weight, assuming an allocation of 20% to drinking-water. However, JECFA recently re-evaluated arsenic and concluded that the existing PTWI was very close to the lower confidence limit on the benchmark dose for a 0.5% response (BMDL_0.5) calculated from epidemiological studies and was therefore no longer appropriate. The PTWI was therefore withdrawn. Nevertheless, given that, in many countries, even the provisional guideline value may not be attainable, it is retained on the basis of treatment performance and analytical achievability with the proviso that every effort should be made to keep concentrations as low as reasonably possible.

Asbestos

Asbestos is introduced into water by the dissolution of asbestos-containing minerals and ores as well as from industrial effluents, atmospheric pollution and asbestos-cement pipes in the distribution system. Exfoliation of asbestos fibres from asbestos-cement pipes is related to the aggressiveness of the water supply. Limited data indicate that exposure to airborne asbestos released from tap water during showers or humidification is negligible.

Asbestos is a known human carcinogen by the inhalation route. Although it has been well studied, there is little convincing evidence of the carcinogenicity of ingested asbestos in epidemiological studies of populations with drinking-water supplies containing high concentrations of asbestos. Moreover, in extensive studies in experimental animal species, asbestos has not consistently increased the incidence of tumours of the gastrointestinal tract. There is therefore no consistent evidence that ingested asbestos is hazardous to health, and thus it is concluded that there is no need to establish a health-based guideline value for asbestos in drinking-water. The primary issue surrounding asbestos-cement pipes is for people working on the outside of the pipes (e.g. cutting pipe), because of the risk of inhalation of asbestos dust.

Atrazine and its metabolites

Atrazine is a selective systemic herbicide of the chlorotriazine class, used for the control of annual broadleaf and grassy weeds. Atrazine and its chloro-s-triazine metabolites—deethyl-atrazine, deisopropyl-atrazine and diaminochlorotriazine—have been found in surface water and groundwater as a result of the use of atrazine as a pre-emergent or early post-emergent herbicide. The metabolite hydroxyatrazine is more commonly detected in groundwater than in surface water.

JMPR agreed that it is unlikely that atrazine is genotoxic and concluded that atrazine is not likely to pose a carcinogenic risk to humans, as the mode of carcinogenic action in certain susceptible rat strains is not relevant for human risk assessment. The weight of evidence from the epidemiological studies also did not support a causal association between exposure to atrazine and the occurrence of cancer in humans.

In special studies of reproductive toxicity, exposure of rats during early pregnancy (i.e. the luteinizing hormone—dependent period) caused increased pre-implantation or post-implantation losses, including full-litter resorptions. Attenuation of the luteinizing hormone surge and subsequent disruption of the estrous cycle (characterized by an increase in days in estrus) were observed at and above 3.65 mg/kg body weight per day, with a NOAEL of 1.8 mg/kg body weight per day. The effects on the luteinizing hormone surge and disruption of the estrous cycle were further supported by a number of short-term mechanistic studies. Additional experiments suggested that the effects of atrazine on luteinizing hormone and prolactin secretion are mediated via a hypothalamic site of action. JMPR concluded that atrazine was not teratogenic.

Studies using a variety of test systems in vitro and in vivo indicated that modulation of the immune system occurs after exposure to atrazine. However, effects suggestive of impaired function of the immune system were observed only at doses greater than those shown to affect neuroendocrine function, leading to disruption of the estrous cycle or developmental effects.

The toxicity profiles and mode of action of the chloro-s-triazine metabolites are similar to those of atrazine; the potency of these metabolites with regard to their neuroendocrine-disrupting properties appeared to be similar to that of the parent compound.

The metabolite hydroxyatrazine does not have the same mode of action or toxicity profile as atrazine and its chloro-s-triazine metabolites. The main effect of hydroxyatrazine was kidney toxicity (owing to its low solubility in water, resulting in crystal formation and a subsequent inflammatory response), and there was no evidence that hydroxyatrazine has neuroendocrine-disrupting properties. There was no evidence of carcinogenicity, and hydroxyatrazine did not show genotoxicity in an adequate range of tests in vitro and in vivo.

Barium

Barium compounds are present in nature as ore deposits and in igneous and sedimentary rocks, and are used in a variety of industrial applications. Barium in water comes primarily from natural sources, although barium also enters the environment from industrial emissions and anthropogenic uses. Food is the primary source of intake for the non-occupationally exposed population. However, where barium concentrations in water are high, drinking-water may contribute significantly to total intake.

There is no evidence that barium is carcinogenic or genotoxic. Acute hypertension has been observed in case reports, but the effects may be secondary to hypokalemia. The critical study that had been identified previously for deriving the guideline value has several limitations (e.g. no effect observed at the single dose evaluated, limitations in the exposure methodology and design, no control for important risk factors for hypertension). Another human study that reported no effects on hypertension at 10 mg/l is limited by the small study size and short exposure duration. Barium has been shown to cause nephropathy in laboratory animals, and this was selected as the toxicological end-point of concern for the current guideline.

Bentazone

Bentazone (CAS No. 25057-89-0) is a post-emergence herbicide used for selective control of broadleaf weeds and sedges occurring among a variety of crops. It is highly soluble in water and very resistant to hydrolysis; it is also very mobile in soil. However, photodegradation occurs in both soil and water. Bentazone may leach from soil into groundwater, particularly during heavy rainfall, and may contaminate surface water through effluents from production plants, drainage waters and actual use in the water (rice fields). Exposure from food is likely to be low.

Bentazone is not carcinogenic in rats or mice, and showed no evidence of genotoxicity in a range of in vitro and in vivo assays. Consistent observations in repeated-dose toxicity studies in mice, rats and dogs are effects on haematology and blood coagulation (e.g. prolongation of prothrombin time and partial thromboplastin time).

Benzene

Benzene is used principally in the production of other organic chemicals. It is present in petrol, and vehicular emissions constitute the main source of benzene in the environment. Benzene may be introduced into water by industrial effluents and atmospheric pollution.

Acute exposure of humans to high concentrations of benzene primarily affects the central nervous system. At lower concentrations, benzene is toxic to the haematopoietic system, causing a continuum of haematological changes, including leukaemia. Because benzene is carcinogenic to humans, IARC has classified it in Group 1. Haematological abnormalities similar to those observed in humans have been observed in experimental animal species exposed to benzene. In animal studies, benzene was shown to be carcinogenic following both inhalation and ingestion. It induced several types of tumours in both rats and mice in a 2-year carcinogenesis bioassay by gavage in corn oil. Benzene has not been found to be mutagenic in bacterial assays, but it has been shown to cause chromosomal aberrations in vivo in a number of species, including humans, and to be positive in the mouse micronucleus test.

Beryllium

The primary source of beryllium compounds in water appears to be release from coal burning and other industries using beryllium. Other sources of beryllium in surface water include deposition of atmospheric beryllium and weathering of rocks and soils containing beryllium. Beryllium is not likely to be found in natural water above trace levels as a result of the insolubility of beryllium oxides and hydroxides in the normal pH range.

As beryllium is rarely, if ever, found in drinking-water at concentrations of concern, it is not considered necessary to set a formal guideline value.

A health-based value for beryllium in drinking-water of 12 μg/l can be calculated based on an allocation of 20% of the TDI of 2 μg/kg body weight, derived from a long-term study in which dogs exhibited lesions of the small intestine, to drinking-water and assuming a 60 kg adult drinking 2 litres of water per day. This allocation is probably conservative, as the limited data on food indicate that exposure from this source is likely to be well below the TDI.

Although beryllium appears to be found in drinking-water sources and drinking-water at low concentrations, the database on occurrence is limited, and there may be specific circumstances in which concentrations can be elevated due to natural sources where the pH is either below 5 or above 8 or there is high turbidity.

Boron

Boron compounds are used in the manufacture of glass, soaps and detergents and as flame retardants. Naturally occurring boron is present in groundwater primarily as a result of leaching from rocks and soils containing borates and borosilicates. The borate content of surface water can be increased as a result of wastewater discharges, but this use has decreased significantly, and levels of boron in wastewater discharges continue to fall.

Short- and long-term oral exposures to boric acid or borax in laboratory animals have demonstrated that the male reproductive tract is a consistent target of toxicity. Testicular lesions have been observed in rats, mice and dogs given boric acid or borax in food or drinking-water. Developmental toxicity has been demonstrated experimentally in rats, mice and rabbits. Negative results in a large number of mutagenicity assays indicate that boric acid and borax are not genotoxic. In long-term studies in mice and rats, boric acid and borax caused no increase in tumour incidence.

Bromate

Sodium and potassium bromate are powerful oxidizers used mainly in permanent wave neutralizing solutions and the dyeing of textiles using sulfur dyes. Potassium bromate has also been used as an oxidizer to mature flour during milling, in treating barley in beer making and in fish paste products, although JECFA has concluded that the use of potassium bromate in food processing is not appropriate. Bromate is not normally found in water, but can occur as a result of pollution from industrial sources, sometimes as a consequence of its presence in contaminated soil. However, the main source in drinking-water is its formation during ozonation when the bromide ion is present in water. Bromate may also be formed in hypochlorite solutions produced by electrolysis of bromide-containing salt.

IARC has concluded that although there is inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in humans, there is sufficient evidence for the carcinogenicity of bromate from high-dose studies in experimental animals; IARC has classified bromate in Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic to humans). Bromate is mutagenic both in vitro and in vivo. At this time, there is not sufficient evidence to conclude as to the mode of carcinogenic action for bromate. Observation of tumours at a relatively early time and the positive response of bromate in a variety of genotoxicity assays suggest that the predominant mode of action at low doses is due to oxidative deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) damage. Although there is evidence to suggest that the DNA reactivity in kidney tumours may have a non-linear dose–response relationship, there is no evidence to suggest that this same dose–response relationship operates in the development of mesotheliomas or thyroid tumours. Oxidative stress may play a role in the formation of kidney tumours, but the evidence is insufficient to establish lipid peroxidation and free radical production as key events responsible for the induction of kidney tumours. However, emerging evidence points to rapid decomposition of bromate in the gastrointestinal tract, blood and liver, which supports a non-linear dose-response relationship at low doses.

Bromide

Bromide is commonly found in nature along with sodium chloride, owing to their similar physical and chemical properties, but in smaller quantities. Bromide concentrations in seawater range from 65 mg/l to well over 80 mg/l, in fresh water from trace amounts to about 0.5 mg/l and in desalinated waters up to 1 mg/l.

Inorganic bromide was evaluated in 1966 by JMPR, which recommended an ADI of 0–1 mg/kg body weight, based on a minimum pharmacologically effective dosage in humans of about 900 mg of potassium bromide, equivalent to 600 mg of bromide ion. The JMPR ADI was reaffirmed with new data in 1988.

The results of human studies suggest a conservative no-observed-effect level (NOEL) (for marginal effect within normal limits of electroencephalograms in females) of 4 mg/kg body weight per day, giving an ADI of 0–0.4 mg/kg body weight, including a safety factor of 10 for population diversity.

The upper limit of the ADI of 0–0.4 mg/kg body weight yields an acceptable total daily intake of 24 mg/person for a 60 kg person. Assuming a relative source contribution of 50%, the drinking-water value for a 60 kg adult consuming 2 litres/day would be up to 6 mg/l; for a 10 kg child consuming 1 litre/day, the value would be up to 2 mg/l. However, the dietary bromide contribution for a 10 kg child would probably be less than that for an adult. These are reasonably conservative values, and they are unlikely to be encountered in drinking-water supplies.

Bromide can be involved in the reaction between chlorine and naturally occurring organic matter in drinking-water, forming brominated and mixed chloro-bromo by-products, such as trihalomethanes (THMs) and halogenated acetic acids (HAAs), or it can react with ozone to form bromate. The levels of bromide that can result in the formation of these substances are well below the health-based values suggested above. This guidance applies specifically to inorganic bromide ion and not to bromate or organohalogen compounds, for which individual health-based guideline values have been developed.

Brominated acetic acids

Brominated acetic acids are formed during disinfection of water that contains bromide ions and organic matter. Bromide ions occur naturally in surface water and groundwater and exhibit seasonal fluctuations in levels. Bromide ion levels can increase as a result of either saltwater intrusion resulting from drought conditions or pollution. Brominated acetates are generally present in surface water and groundwater distribution systems at mean concentrations below 5 μg/l.

The database for dibromoacetic acid is considered inadequate for the derivation of a guideline value. There are no systemic toxicity studies of subchronic duration or longer. The database also lacks suitable toxicokinetic studies, a carcinogenicity study, a developmental study in a second species and a multigeneration reproductive toxicity study. Available mutagenicity data suggest that dibromoacetate is genotoxic.

Data are also limited on the oral toxicity of monobromoacetic acid and bromochloroacetic acid. Limited mutagenicity and genotoxicity data give mixed results for monobromoacetic acid and generally positive results for bromochloroacetic acid. Data gaps include subchronic or chronic toxicity studies, multigeneration reproductive toxicity studies, standard developmental toxicity studies and carcinogenicity studies. The available data are considered inadequate to establish guideline values for these chemicals.

Cadmium

Cadmium metal is used in the steel industry and in plastics. Cadmium compounds are widely used in batteries. Cadmium is released to the environment in wastewater, and diffuse pollution is caused by contamination from fertilizers and local air pollution. Contamination in drinking-water may also be caused by impurities in the zinc of galvanized pipes and solders and some metal fittings. Food is the main source of daily exposure to cadmium. The daily oral intake is 10–35 μg. Smoking is a significant additional source of cadmium exposure.

Absorption of cadmium compounds is dependent on the solubility of the compounds. Cadmium accumulates primarily in the kidneys and has a long biological half-life in humans of 10–35 years. There is evidence that cadmium is carcinogenic by the inhalation route, and IARC has classified cadmium and cadmium compounds in Group 2A (probably carcinogenic to humans). However, there is no evidence of carcinogenicity by the oral route and no clear evidence for the genotoxicity of cadmium. The kidney is the main target organ for cadmium toxicity.

In its recent evaluation of cadmium, JECFA found that data relating excretion of the biomarker β₂-microglobulin in urine to cadmium excretion in urine for individuals who are 50 years of age and older provided the most reliable basis on which to determine a critical concentration of cadmium in the urine. Urinary excretion of less than 5.24 μg of cadmium per gram creatinine was not associated with an increased excretion of β₂-microglobulin, and the dietary exposure that would result in a urinary cadmium concentration at the breakpoint of 5.24 μg/g creatinine was estimated to be 0.8 μg/kg body weight per day or about 25 μg/kg body weight per month. Because of cadmium's exceptionally long half-life, the previous PTWI of 7 μg/kg body weight was withdrawn, and a PTMI of 25 μg/kg body weight was established.

Carbaryl

Carbaryl (CAS No. 63-25-2) is a broad-spectrum carbamate insecticide that is used to control insect pests in crops, trees and ornamental plants. It also has some uses in public health and veterinary practice. Carbaryl has not been reported in drinking-water; however, it could occur following overspraying or spillage into surface water. Exposure through drinking-water is therefore considered to be low unless in exceptional circumstances. The major route of carbaryl intake for the general population is food, but residues are considered to be relatively low.

Carbaryl acts through inhibition of brain cholinesterase, and this is also its primary mode of toxicity. However, carbaryl is also considered to be a non-genotoxic carcinogen in mice, in which it causes vascular tumours in males. On this basis, JMPR established an ADI of 0–0.008 mg/kg body weight. This was based on a lowest-observed-adverse-effect level (LOAEL) of 15 mg/kg body weight per day and application of a safety factor of 2000 (10 for interspecies variation, 10 for intraspecies variation and 20 to reflect the occurrence of the rare and malignant tumour for which a no-effect level could not be identified).

A health-based value of 50 μg/l (rounded value) can be determined from the JMPR ADI of 0–0.008 mg/kg body weight, assuming a 60 kg adult drinking 2 litres of water per day and allowing 20% of the upper limit of the ADI from drinking-water. However, carbaryl does not appear to be found in drinking-water at significant concentrations, and so it is not considered necessary to propose a formal guideline value.

Carbofuran

Carbofuran (CAS No. 1563-66-2) is used worldwide as a pesticide for many crops. Residues in treated crops are generally very low or not detectable. The physicochemical properties of carbofuran and the few data on occurrence indicate that drinking-water from both groundwater and surface water sources is potentially the major route of exposure.

Carbofuran is highly toxic after acute oral administration. The main systemic effect of carbofuran poisoning in short-term and long-term toxicity studies appears to be cholinesterase inhibition. No evidence of teratogenicity has been found in reproductive toxicity studies. On the basis of available studies, carbofuran does not appear to be carcinogenic or genotoxic.

Carbon tetrachloride

Carbon tetrachloride is used mainly in the production of chlorofluorocarbon refrigerants, foam-blowing agents and solvents. However, since the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987) and its amendments (1990 and 1992) established a timetable for the phase-out of the production and consumption of carbon tetrachloride, manufacture and use have dropped and will continue to drop. Carbon tetrachloride is released mostly into the atmosphere but also into industrial wastewater. Although it readily migrates from surface water to the atmosphere, levels in anaerobic groundwater may remain elevated for months or even years. Although available data on concentrations in food are limited, the intake from air is expected to be much greater than that from food or drinking-water.

The primary targets for carbon tetrachloride toxicity are liver and kidney. In experiments with mice and rats, carbon tetrachloride proved to be capable of inducing hepatomas and hepatocellular carcinomas. The doses inducing hepatic tumours were higher than those inducing cell toxicity. It is likely that the carcinogenicity of carbon tetrachloride is secondary to its hepatotoxic effects. On the basis of available data, carbon tetrachloride can be considered to be a non-genotoxic compound. Carbon tetrachloride is classified by IARC as being possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B): there is sufficient evidence that carbon tetrachloride is carcinogenic in laboratory animals, but inadequate evidence in humans.

Chloral hydrate

Chloral hydrate, or trichloroacetaldehyde, can be formed as a by-product of the chlorination of water containing organic precursor material, such as fulvic and humic acids. It has been found in drinking-water at concentrations of up to 100 μg/l, but concentrations are usually below 10 μg/l. Concentrations are generally higher in surface water than in groundwater, and concentrations appear to increase during distribution.

Chloral hydrate is used as an intermediate in the production of insecticides, herbicides and hypnotic drugs. It has also been widely used as a sedative or hypnotic drug in humans at oral doses of up to about 750–1000 mg/day Although intake from clinical use is considerably higher than intake from drinking-water, clinical exposure is of shorter-term duration.

No epidemiological or carcinogenic studies were found in humans that associated exposure to chloral hydrate with cancer, despite the fact that chloral hydrate has been used for many decades (and still is used) as a sedative and hypnotic drug in adults and children (specifically for dental procedures). IARC classified chloral hydrate as not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans (Group 3), based on inadequate evidence in humans and limited evidence in experimental animals. There is equivocal evidence for the genotoxicity of chloral hydrate.

A health-based value of 0.1 mg/l (rounded figure) can be calculated on the basis of a TDI of 0.0045 mg/kg body weight derived based on an increased incidence of liver histopathology observed in mice in a 2-year drinking-water study, allocating 80% of the TDI to drinking-water (because most exposure to chloral hydrate is from drinking-water) and assuming a 60 kg adult consuming 2 litres of water per day. However, because chloral hydrate usually occurs in drinking-water at concentrations well below those of health concern, it is not considered necessary to derive a guideline value.

Chloral hydrate levels in drinking-water can be controlled by changes to disinfection practice (e.g. enhanced coagulation and softening to remove organic precursor compounds, moving the point of disinfection to reduce the reaction between chlorine and precursor compounds and using chloramines for residual disinfection instead of chlorine) and by GAC treatment.

Chloramines (monochloramine, dichloramine, trichloramine)

Monochloramine, dichloramines and trichloramines are considered by-products of drinking-water chlorination, being formed when chlorine and ammonia are added to water. Monochloramine may also be added to maintain residual disinfection activity in potable water distribution systems. Because higher chloramines are formed only occasionally and cause taste and odour problems at concentrations lower than those at which monochloramine causes taste and odour problems, only monochloramine has been considered for development of a health-based guideline value. Chloramine is rapidly decomposed in the stomach by gastric juice. The use of chloramines for disinfection instead of chlorine reduces the formation of THMs in drinking-water supplies. However, formation of other by-products, such as haloketones, chloropicrin, cyanogen chloride, HAAs, haloacetonitriles, aldehydes and chlorophenols, has been reported. Monochloramine, the most abundant chloramine, is recognized as a less effective disinfectant than chlorine and is used as a secondary disinfectant to maintain a residual in distribution systems.

Chlordane

Chlordane (CAS No. 57-47-9) is a broad-spectrum insecticide that has been used since 1947. Its use has recently been increasingly restricted in many countries, and it is now used mainly to destroy termites by subsurface injection into soil. Chlordane may be a low-level source of contamination of groundwater when applied by subsurface injection. Technical chlordane is a mixture of compounds, with the cis and trans forms of chlordane predominating. It is very resistant to degradation, highly immobile in soil and unlikely to migrate to groundwater, where it has only rarely been found. It is readily lost to the atmosphere. Although levels of chlordane in food have been decreasing, it is highly persistent and has a high bioaccumulation potential.

In experimental animals, prolonged exposure in the diet causes liver damage. Chlordane produces liver tumours in mice, but the weight of evidence indicates that it is not genotoxic. Chlordane can interfere with cell communication in vitro, a characteristic of many tumour promoters. IARC re-evaluated chlordane in 1991 and concluded that there is inadequate evidence for its carcinogenicity in humans and sufficient evidence for its carcinogenicity in animals, classifying it in Group 2B.

Chloride

Chloride in drinking-water originates from natural sources, sewage and industrial effluents, urban runoff containing de-icing salt and saline intrusion.

The main source of human exposure to chloride is the addition of salt to food, and the intake from this source is usually greatly in excess of that from drinking-water.

Excessive chloride concentrations increase rates of corrosion of metals in the distribution system, depending on the alkalinity of the water. This can lead to increased concentrations of metals in the supply.

No health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride in drinking-water. However, chloride concentrations in excess of about 250 mg/l can give rise to detectable taste in water (see chapter 10).

Chlorine

Chlorine is produced in large amounts and widely used both industrially and domestically as an important disinfectant and bleach. In particular, it is widely used in the disinfection of swimming pools and is the most commonly used disinfectant and oxidant in drinking-water treatment. In water, chlorine reacts to form hypochlorous acid and hypochlorites. Concentrations of chlorate and some perchlorates increase in hypochlorite solutions upon storage at high ambient temperatures or when new hypochlorite is added to old hypochlorite.

In humans and experimental animals exposed to chlorine in drinking-water, no specific adverse treatment-related effects have been observed. IARC has classified hypochlorite in Group 3 (not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans).

Chlorine dioxide, chlorite and chlorate

Chlorite and chlorate are DBPs resulting from the use of chlorine dioxide as a disinfectant and for odour and taste control in water. Sodium chlorite and sodium chlorate are both used in the production of chlorine dioxide as well as for other commercial purposes. Chlorite and chlorate are also formed during the decomposition of hypochlorite solutions that are stored for long periods, particularly at warm temperatures. Where hypochlorite or chlorine dioxide is used as a disinfectant, the major route of environmental exposure to chlorite and chlorate is expected to be through drinking-water.

Chloroacetones

1,1-Dichloroacetone is formed from the reaction between chlorine and organic precursors and has been detected in chlorinated drinking-water. Concentrations are estimated to be less than 10 μg/l and usually less than 1 μg/l.

The toxicological data on 1,1-dichloroacetone are very limited, although studies with single doses indicate that it affects the liver.

There are insufficient data at present to permit the setting of guideline values for 1,1-dichloroacetone or any of the other chloroacetones.

Chlorophenols (2-chlorophenol, 2,4-dichlorophenol, 2,4,6-trichlorophenol)

Chlorophenols are present in drinking-water as a result of the chlorination of phenols, as by-products of the reaction of hypochlorite with phenolic acids, as biocides or as degradation products of phenoxy herbicides. Those most likely to occur in drinking-water as by-products of chlorination are 2-chlorophenol, 2,4-dichlorophenol and 2,4,6-trichlorophenol. The taste thresholds for chlorophenols in drinking-water are low.

Chloropicrin

Chloropicrin, or trichloronitromethane, is formed by the reaction of chlorine with humic and amino acids and with nitrophenols. Its formation is increased in the presence of nitrates. Limited data from the USA indicate that concentrations in drinking-water are usually less than 5 μg/l.

Decreased survival and body weights have been reported following long-term oral exposure in laboratory animals. Chloropicrin has been shown to be mutagenic in bacterial tests and in in vitro assays in lymphocytes. Because of the high mortality in a carcinogenesis bioassay and the limited number of end-points examined in the 78-week toxicity study, the available data were considered inadequate to permit the establishment of a guideline value for chloropicrin.

Chlorotoluron

Chlorotoluron (CAS No. 15545-48-9) is a pre emergence or early post emergence herbicide that is slowly biodegradable and mobile in soil. There is only very limited exposure to this compound from food.

Chlorotoluron is of low toxicity following single, short-term and long-term exposures in experimental animals, but it has been shown to cause an increase in adenomas and carcinomas of the kidneys of male mice given high doses for 2 years. As no carcinogenic effects were reported in a 2-year study in rats, it has been suggested that chlorotoluron has a carcinogenic potential that is both species and sex specific. Chlorotoluron and its metabolites have shown no evidence of genotoxicity

Chlorpyrifos

Chlorpyrifos (CAS No. 2921-88-2) is a broad-spectrum organophosphorus insecticide used for the control of mosquitoes, flies, various crop pests in soil and on foliage, household pests and aquatic larvae. Although it is not recommended for addition to water for public health purposes by the WHO Pesticide Evaluation Scheme (WHOPES), it may be used in some countries as an aquatic larvicide for the control of mosquito larvae. Chlorpyrifos is strongly absorbed by soil and does not readily leach from it, degrading slowly by microbial action. It has a low solubility in water and great tendency to partition from aqueous phases into organic phases in the environment.

JMPR concluded that chlorpyrifos is unlikely to pose a carcinogenic risk to humans. Chlorpyrifos was not genotoxic in an adequate range of studies in vitro and in vivo. In long-term studies, inhibition of cholinesterase activity was the main toxicological finding in all species.

Chromium

Chromium is widely distributed in Earth's crust. It can exist in valences of +2 to +6. In general, food appears to be the major source of intake. Chromium(III) is an essential nutrient.

In a long-term carcinogenicity study in rats given chromium(III) by the oral route, no increase in tumour incidence was observed. In rats, chromium(VI) is a carcinogen via the inhalation route, although an NTP study has shown evidence for carcinogenicity via the oral route at high doses. However, there is evidence that the dose-response relationship at low doses is non-linear, because chromium(VI) is reduced to chromium(III) in the stomach and gastrointestinal tract. In epidemiological studies, an association has been found between exposure to chromium(VI) by the inhalation route and lung cancer. IARC has classified chromium(VI) in Group 1 (human carcinogen) and chromium(III) in Group 3 (not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans). Chromium(VI) compounds are active in a wide range of in vitro and in vivo genotoxicity tests, whereas chromium(III) compounds are not.

Copper

Copper is both an essential nutrient and a drinking-water contaminant. It is used to make pipes, valves and fittings and is present in alloys and coatings. Copper sulfate pentahydrate is sometimes added to surface water for the control of algae. Copper concentrations in drinking-water vary widely, with the primary source most often being the corrosion of interior copper plumbing. Levels in running or fully flushed water tend to be low, whereas those in standing or partially flushed water samples are more variable and can be substantially higher (frequently above 1 mg/l). Copper concentrations in treated water often increase during distribution, especially in systems with an acid pH or high-carbonate waters with an alkaline pH. Food and water are the primary sources of copper exposure in developed countries. Consumption of standing or partially flushed water from a distribution system that includes copper pipes or fittings can considerably increase total daily copper exposure, especially for infants fed formula reconstituted with tap water.

IPCS concluded that the upper limit of the acceptable range of oral intake in adults is uncertain but is most likely in the range of several (more than 2 or 3 mg/day), but not many, milligrams per day in adults. This evaluation was based solely on studies of gastrointestinal effects of copper-contaminated drinking-water. The available data on toxicity in experimental animals were not considered helpful in establishing the upper limit of the acceptable range of oral intake owing to uncertainty about an appropriate model for humans, but they help to establish a mode of action for the response. The data on the gastrointestinal effects of copper must be used with caution, as the effects observed are influenced by the concentration of ingested copper to a greater extent than the total mass or dose ingested in a 24-hour period. Recent studies have delineated the threshold for the effects of copper in drinking-water on the gastrointestinal tract, but there is still some uncertainty regarding the long-term effects of copper on sensitive populations, such as carriers of the gene for Wilson disease and other metabolic disorders of copper homeostasis.

Cyanazine

Cyanazine (CAS No. 21725-46-2) is a member of the triazine family of herbicides. It is used as a pre-emergence and post-emergence herbicide for the control of annual grasses and broadleaf weeds. It can be degraded in soil and water by microorganisms and by hydrolysis.

On the basis of the available mutagenicity data on cyanazine, evidence for genotoxicity is equivocal. Cyanazine causes mammary gland tumours in rats but not in mice. The mechanism of mammary gland tumour development in rats is currently under investigation and may prove to be hormonal. Cyanazine is also teratogenic in rats at dose levels of 25 mg/kg body weight per day and higher.

Cyanide

Cyanides can be found in some foods, particularly in some developing countries, and they are occasionally found in drinking-water, but usually only at very low concentrations. However, there are occasions on which large spills of cyanide, associated with industry, occur, and these can give rise to very high concentrations in drinking-water source waters, particularly surface waters.

Cyanide is highly acutely toxic. It is detoxified in the liver by first-pass metabolism following oral exposure. As a consequence, exposure to a dose spread over a longer period, through a day, for example, will result in lower toxicity, or higher tolerance, than the same dose given in a single bolus dose. Exposure to high doses can give rise to thyroid toxicity as a secondary effect of exposure due to the inhibition of iodine uptake from the thiocyanate generated through the detoxifying action of rhodanese. It is difficult to interpret human data in view of the difficulty in assessing the actual absorbed dose in humans following acute fatal intoxication and the lack of well-conducted studies on sublethal toxicity.

There is a need for guidance regarding concentrations that would not be of concern for public health following short-term exposure to cyanide. However, because cyanide is unlikely to occur in drinking-water at concentrations of health concern, it is considered unnecessary to derive a formal guideline value for short-term exposure to cyanide.

The data on acute exposure to cyanide are unsuitable for use in deriving a health-based value for short-term exposure because of the high uncertainty surrounding the data. Using the NOAEL for effects on the reproductive organs of male rats in a 13-week study and an uncertainty factor of 100, a TDI of 0.045 mg/kg body weight can be derived. Because this health-based value is intended for short-term use and exposure would not exceed 5 days, it is considered to be acceptable to allocate 40% of the TDI to drinking-water to allow for exposure to cyanogenic glycosides in food. Therefore, assuming a 60 kg adult drinking 2 litres of water per day with an allocation of 40% of the TDI to drinking-water, a health-based value of 0.5 mg/l (rounded value) for short-term exposure can be calculated.

This health-based value is well below the level that is normally considered to be of health concern for humans. Cyanide is rapidly detoxified, and exposure spread throughout the day will further reduce the potential for effects. This health-based value would be suitable for use for a limited period of up to 5 days, which is the longest period likely to be required under the circumstances of such an emergency. However, it is probable that, in most circumstances, this value will be highly conservative for short-term exposure.

It should be noted that the lowest reported odour threshold for cyanide in drinking-water is 0.17 mg/l, which is below the short-term health-based value. It is therefore possible that a small number of individuals will detect cyanide by odour at concentrations below the health-based value.

The health-based value relates to total cyanide concentration at the tap, including cyanide from cyanogen chloride in drinking-water as a by-product of disinfection with chlorine. Cyanogen chloride rapidly breaks down to cyanide in the distribution system or when ingested. As the low levels of cyanide normally found in drinking-water are mostly a consequence of the presence of cyanogen chloride, it is not considered necessary to develop a guideline value for long-term exposure to cyanide.

Cyanobacterial toxins: Microcystin-LR

Among the cyanobacterial toxins, microcystins are the best-researched group and probably occur most frequently in fresh waters. Many practical considerations for the abatement of microcystins apply similarly to the other cyanotoxins (i.e. cylindrospermopsins, saxitoxins, anatoxin-a and anatoxin-a(s)), with one key difference that is relevant to the efficacy of their removal in drinking-water treatment: microcystins are usually cell-bound, and substantial amounts are released to the surrounding water only in situations of cell rupture (i.e. lysis), whereas the other cyanotoxins may occur to a larger extent dissolved in water.

Although microcystins may occur in fish, molluscs and shellfish from water bodies with cyanobacterial proliferation, human exposure to microcystins is largely through drinking-water or recreational use of water bodies with cyanobacterial blooms.

Among the more than 80 microcystins identified to date, only a few occur frequently and in high concentrations. Microcystin-LR is among the most frequently occurring and most toxic microcystin congeners. It is the only one for which enough toxicological data are available with which to derive a provisional guideline value. Frequently occurring cyanobacterial genera that may contain microcystins are Microcystis, Planktothrix and Anabaena (see also section 11.5).

Microcystin-LR is a potent inhibitor of eukaryotic protein serine/threonine phosphatases 1 and 2A. The primary target for microcystin toxicity is the liver, as microcystins cross cell membranes chiefly through the bile acid transporter. Guideline value derivation was based on an oral 13-week study with mice, supported by an oral 44-day study with pigs. A large number of poisonings of livestock and wildlife have been recorded. Evidence of tumour promotion has been published. In 2006, IARC classified microcystin-LR as a possible carcinogen (Group 2B).

Cyanogen chloride

Cyanogen chloride may be formed as a by-product of chloramination or chlorination of water. It is also formed by the chlorination of cyanide ion present in raw water.

Cyanogen chloride is rapidly metabolized to cyanide in the body. There are few data available on the oral toxicity of cyanogen chloride.

As cyanogen chloride is unlikely to be found in drinking-water at concentrations that are of health concern, it is considered unnecessary to develop a formal guideline value for cyanogen chloride. Instead, for guidance purposes, a health-based value is derived based on cyanide.

Using a NOAEL for cyanide of 4.5 mg/kg body weight per day for minor changes in the testis in a subchronic study in which rats were exposed through their drinking-water and an uncertainty factor of 100, a TDI for cyanide of 0.045 mg/kg body weight (corresponding to a cyanogen chloride dose of 0.11 mg/kg body weight) can be derived. In view of the minor nature of the changes observed and the NOAEL in a previous chronic study, it is not considered necessary to include an additional uncertainty factor to allow for the length of the study. Further, it appears that a dose that may be toxic in acute poisoning would certainly be tolerated under chronic conditions, owing to efficient detoxification. Assuming a 60 kg adult drinking 2 litres of water per day and allowing 20% of the TDI to come from water because of the potential for exposure to cyanogenic glycosides in food, the health-based value for long-term exposure is 0.3 mg/l for cyanide or 0.6 mg/l for cyanogen chloride (rounded values).

Although low concentrations of cyanide in raw waters will be converted to cyanogen chloride by chlorination, cyanogen chloride may also be formed during the production of chloramines in situ as a residual disinfectant to maintain the hygienic condition of the distribution system. It is important that treatment be optimized to minimize the formation of cyanogen chloride while maintaining adequate chloramine residuals where chloramination is practised.

2,4-D

The term 2,4-D is used here to refer to the free acid, 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (CAS No. 94-75-7). Commercial 2,4-D products are marketed as the free acid, alkali and amine salts and ester formulations. 2,4-D itself is chemically stable, but its esters are rapidly hydrolysed to the free acid. 2,4-D is a systemic herbicide used for control of broad-leaved weeds, including aquatic weeds. 2,4-D is rapidly biodegraded in the environment. Residues of 2,4-D in food rarely exceed a few tens of micrograms per kilogram.

Epidemiological studies have suggested an association between exposure to chlorophenoxy herbicides, including 2,4-D, and two forms of cancer in humans: soft tissue sarcomas and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. The results of these studies, however, are inconsistent; the associations found are weak, and conflicting conclusions have been reached by the investigators. Most of the studies did not provide information on exposure specifically to 2,4-D, and the risk was related to the general category of chlorophenoxy herbicides, a group that includes 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T), which was potentially contaminated with dioxins. JMPR concluded that it was not possible to evaluate the carcinogenic potential of 2,4-D on the basis of the available epidemiological studies. JMPR also concluded that 2,4-D and its salts and esters are not genotoxic. The toxicity of the salts and esters of 2,4-D is comparable to that of the acid.

2,4-DB

The half-lives for degradation of chlorophenoxy herbicides, including 2,4-DB, or 2,4-dichlorophenoxybutyric acid (CAS No. 94-82-6), in the environment are in the order of several days. Chlorophenoxy herbicides are not often found in food.

Chlorophenoxy herbicides, as a group, have been classified in Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic to humans) by IARC. However, the available data from studies in exposed populations and experimental animals do not permit assessment of the carcinogenic potential to humans of any specific chlorophenoxy herbicide. Therefore, drinking-water guidelines for these compounds are based on a threshold approach for other toxic effects.

DDT and metabolites

The structure of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, or DDT (CAS No. 107917-42-0), permits several different isomeric forms; commercial products consist predominantly of p,p′-DDT. Its use has been restricted or banned in several countries, although DDT is still used in some countries for the control of vectors that transmit yellow fever, sleeping sickness, typhus, malaria and other insect-transmitted diseases. DDT and its metabolites are persistent in the environment and resistant to complete degradation by microorganisms. Food is the major source of intake of DDT and related compounds for the general population, although exposure has significantly decreased as a consequence of the greatly reduced use of DDT for all except specialist applications.

A working group convened by IARC classified the DDT complex (the mixture of the various isomers of DDT and associated compounds) as a non-genotoxic carcinogen in rodents and a potent promoter of liver tumours. IARC has concluded that there is insufficient evidence in humans and sufficient evidence in experimental animals for the carcinogenicity of DDT (Group 2B) based upon liver tumours observed in rats and mice. The results of epidemiological studies of pancreatic cancer, multiple myeloma, non-Hodgkin lymphoma and uterine cancer did not support the hypothesis of an association with environmental exposure to the DDT complex. Conflicting data were obtained with regard to some genotoxic end-points. In most studies, DDT did not induce genotoxic effects in rodent or human cell systems, nor was it mutagenic to fungi or bacteria. The United States Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry concluded that the DDT complex could impair reproduction and development in several species. Hepatic effects of DDT in rats include increased liver weights, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, induction of microsomal enzymes, including cytochrome P450, cell necrosis, increased activity of serum liver enzymes and mitogenic effects, which might be related to a regenerative liver response to high doses of DDT.

Dialkyltins

The group of chemicals known as the organotins is composed of a large number of compounds with differing properties and applications. The most widely used organotins are the disubstituted compounds, which are employed as stabilizers in plastics, including polyvinyl chloride (PVC) water pipes, and the trisubstituted compounds, which are widely used as biocides.

The disubstituted compounds that may leach from PVC water pipes at low concentrations for a short time after installation are primarily immunotoxins, although they appear to be of low general toxicity. The data available are insufficient to permit the proposal of guideline values for individual dialkyltins.

1,2-Dibromo-3-chloropropane

1,2-Dibromo-3-chloropropane (CAS No. 96-12-8), or DBCP, is a soil fumigant that is highly soluble in water. It has a taste and odour threshold in water of 10 μg/l. DBCP was detected in vegetables grown in treated soils, and low levels have been detected in air.

On the basis of data from different strains of rats and mice, DBCP was determined to be carcinogenic in both sexes by the oral, inhalation and dermal routes. DBCP was also determined to be a reproductive toxicant in humans and several species of laboratory animals. DBCP was found to be genotoxic in a majority of in vitro and in vivo assays. IARC has classified DBCP in Group 2B based upon sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in animals. Recent epidemiological evidence suggests an increase in cancer mortality in individuals exposed to high levels of DBCP.

1,2-Dibromoethane

1,2-Dibromoethane (CAS No. 106-93-4), or ethylene dibromide, is used as a lead scavenger in tetraalkyl lead petrol and antiknock preparations and as a fumigant for soils, grains and fruits. However, with the phasing out of leaded petrol and of the use of 1,2-dibromoethane in agricultural applications in many countries, use of this substance has declined significantly. In addition to its continued use as a petrol additive in some countries, 1,2-dibromoethane is currently used principally as a solvent and as an intermediate in the chemical industry.

1,2-Dibromoethane has induced an increased incidence of tumours at several sites in all carcinogenicity bioassays identified in which rats or mice were exposed to the compound by gavage, ingestion in drinking-water, dermal application and inhalation. However, many of these studies were characterized by high early mortality, limited histopathological examination, small group sizes or use of only one exposure level. The substance acted as an initiator of liver foci in an initiation/promotion assay but did not initiate skin tumour development. 1,2-Dibromoethane was consistently genotoxic in in vitro assays, although results of in vivo assays were mixed. Biotransformation to active metabolites, which have been demonstrated to bind to DNA, is probably involved in the induction of tumours. Available data do not support the existence of a non-genotoxic mechanism of tumour induction. The available data thus indicate that 1,2-dibromoethane is a genotoxic carcinogen in rodents. Data on the potential carcinogenicity in humans are inadequate; however, it is likely that 1,2-dibromoethane is metabolized similarly in rodent species and in humans (although there may be varying potential for the production of active metabolites in humans, owing to genetic polymorphism). IARC classified 1,2-dibromoethane in Group 2A (probably carcinogenic to humans).

Dichloroacetic acid

Chlorinated acetic acids, including dichloroacetic acid (DCA), are formed from organic material during water chlorination. DCA has been used as a therapeutic agent to treat lactic acidosis, diabetes and familial hyperlipidaemia in humans.

IARC reclassified DCA as Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic to humans) in 2002, based on the absence of data on human carcinogenicity and sufficient evidence of its carcinogenicity in experimental animals. This classification was based primarily on findings of liver tumours in rats and mice. Genotoxicity data are considered to be inconclusive, particularly at lower doses. Glycogen deposition, peroxisome proliferation, changes in signal transduction pathways and DNA hypomethylation have all been observed following DCA exposure and have been hypothesized to be involved in its carcinogenicity. However, the available data are not sufficient to establish a cancer mode of action with reasonable certainty, especially at the very low exposure levels expected to apply to humans ingesting chlorinated drinking-water. Recent data suggest that there may be more than one mechanism leading to tumours, as altered hepatic foci from treated mice were found to have three different types of cellular characteristics.

Dichlorobenzenes (1,2-dichlorobenzene, 1,3-dichlorobenzene, 1,4-dichlorobenzene)

The dichlorobenzenes (DCBs) are widely used in industry and in domestic products such as odour-masking agents, chemical dyestuffs and pesticides. Sources of human exposure are predominantly air and food.

1,1-Dichloroethane

1,1-Dichloroethane is used as a chemical intermediate and solvent. There are limited data showing that it can be present at concentrations of up to 10 μg/l in drinking-water. It is primarily of concern for groundwater.

1,1-Dichloroethane is rapidly metabolized by mammals to acetic acid and a variety of chlorinated compounds. It is of relatively low acute toxicity, and limited data are available on its toxicity from short-term and long-term studies. There is limited in vitro evidence of genotoxicity One carcinogenicity study by gavage in mice and rats provided no conclusive evidence of carcinogenicity, although there was some evidence of an increased incidence of haemangiosarcomas in treated animals.

In view of the very limited database on toxicity and carcinogenicity, it was concluded that no guideline value should be proposed.

1,2-Dichloroethane

1,2-Dichloroethane is used mainly as an intermediate in the production of vinyl chloride and other chemicals and to a lesser extent as a solvent. It was used as a scavenger for tetraethyl lead in gasoline. It may enter surface waters via effluents from industries that manufacture or use the substance. It may also enter groundwater, where it may persist for long periods, following disposal in waste sites. It is found in urban air.

IARC has classified 1,2-dichloroethane in Group 2B (possible human carcinogen). It has been shown to produce statistically significant increases in a number of tumour types in laboratory animals, including the relatively rare haemangiosarcoma, and the balance of evidence indicates that it is potentially genotoxic. Targets of 1,2-dichloroethane toxicity in orally exposed animals included the immune system, central nervous sytem, liver and kidney. Data indicate that 1,2-dichloroethane is less potent when inhaled.

1,1-Dichloroethene

1,1-Dichloroethene, or vinylidene chloride, is used mainly as a monomer in the production of polyvinylidene chloride co-polymers and as an intermediate in the synthesis of other organic chemicals. It is an occasional contaminant of drinking-water, usually being found together with other chlorinated hydrocarbons. There are no data on levels in food, but levels in air are generally less than 40 ng/m³ except at some manufacturing sites. 1,1-Dichloroethene is detected in finished drinking-water taken from groundwater sources at median concentrations of 0.28–1.2 μg/l and in public drinking-water supplies at concentrations up to 0.5 μg/l.

1,1-Dichloroethene is a central nervous system depressant and may cause liver and kidney toxicity in occupationally exposed humans. It causes liver and kidney damage in laboratory animals. IARC has placed 1,1-dichloroethene in Group 3 (not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans). It was found to be genotoxic in a number of test systems in vitro but was not active in the dominant lethal and micronucleus assays in vivo. It induced kidney tumours in mice in one inhalation study but was reported not to be carcinogenic in a number of other studies, including several in which it was given in drinking-water.

A health-based value of 140 μg/l (rounded value) can be calculated on the basis of a TDI of 0.046 mg/kg body weight, derived using the benchmark dose (BMD) approach from a study in which the critical effect was minimal hepatocellular midzonal fatty change in female rats. However, this value is significantly higher than the concentrations of 1,1-dichloroethene normally found in drinking-water. It is therefore considered unnecessary to set a formal guideline value for 1,1-dichloroethene in drinking-water.

1,2-Dichloroethene

1,2-Dichloroethene exists in a cis and a trans form. The cis form is more frequently found as a water contaminant. The presence of these two isomers, which are metabolites of other unsaturated halogenated hydrocarbons in wastewater and anaerobic groundwater, may indicate the simultaneous presence of other organochlorine chemicals, such as vinyl chloride. Accordingly, their presence indicates that more intensive monitoring should be conducted. There are no data on exposure from food. Concentrations in air are low, with higher concentrations, in the microgram per cubic metre range, near production sites. The cis isomer was previously used as an anaesthetic.

There is little information on the absorption, distribution or excretion of 1,2-dichloroethene. However, by analogy with 1,1-dichloroethene, 1,2-dichloroethene would be expected to be readily absorbed, distributed mainly to the liver, kidneys and lungs and rapidly excreted. The cis isomer is more rapidly metabolized than the trans isomer in in vitro systems. Both isomers have been reported to cause increased serum alkaline phosphatase levels in rodents. In a 3-month study in mice given the trans isomer in drinking-water, there was a reported increase in serum alkaline phosphatase and reduced thymus and lung weights. Transient immunological effects were also reported, the toxicological significance of which is unclear. Trans-1,2-dichloroethene also caused reduced kidney weights in rats, but at higher doses. Only one rat toxicity study is available for the cis isomer, which produced toxic effects in rats similar in magnitude to those induced by the trans isomer in mice, but at higher doses. There are limited data to suggest that both isomers may possess some genotoxic activity. There is no information on carcinogenicity.

Dichloromethane

Dichloromethane, or methylene chloride, is widely used as a solvent for many purposes, including coffee decaffeination and paint stripping. Exposure from drinking-water is likely to be insignificant compared with that from other sources.

Dichloromethane is of low acute toxicity. An inhalation study in mice provided conclusive evidence of carcinogenicity, whereas drinking-water studies in rats and mice provided only suggestive evidence. IARC has placed dichloromethane in Group 2B (possible human carcinogen); however, the balance of evidence suggests that it is not a genotoxic carcinogen and that genotoxic metabolites are not formed in relevant amounts in vivo.

1,2-Dichloropropane

1,2-Dichloropropane (CAS No. 78-87-5), or 1,2-DCP, is used as an insecticide fumigant on grain and soil and to control peach tree borers. It is also used as an intermediate in the production of tetrachloroethene and other chlorinated products and as a solvent. 1,2-DCP is relatively resistant to hydrolysis, is poorly adsorbed onto soil and can migrate into groundwater.

1,2-DCP was evaluated by IARC in 1986 and 1987. The substance was classified in Group 3 (not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans) on the basis of limited evidence for its carcinogenicity in experimental animals and insufficient data with which to evaluate its carcinogenicity in humans. Results from in vitro assays for mutagenicity were mixed. The in vivo studies, which were limited in number and design, were negative. In accordance with the IARC evaluation, the evidence from the long-term carcinogenicity studies in mice and rats was considered limited, and it was concluded that the use of a threshold approach for the toxicological evaluation of 1,2-DCP was appropriate.

1,3-Dichloropropane

1,3-Dichloropropane (CAS No. 142-28-9) has several industrial uses and may be found as a contaminant of soil fumigants containing 1,3-dichloropropene. It is rarely found in water.

1,3-Dichloropropane is of low acute toxicity. There is some indication that it may be genotoxic in bacterial systems. No short-term, long-term, reproductive or developmental toxicity data pertinent to exposure via drinking-water could be located in the literature. The available data are considered insufficient to permit recommendation of a guideline value.

1,3-Dichloropropene

1,3-Dichloropropene (CAS Nos. 542-75-6 isomer mixture; 10061-01-5 cis isomer; 10061-02-6 trans isomer) is a soil fumigant, the commercial product being a mixture of cis and trans isomers. It is used to control a wide variety of soil pests, particularly nematodes in sandy soils. Notwithstanding its high vapour pressure, it is soluble in water at the gram per litre level and can be considered a potential water contaminant.

1,3 Dichloropropene is a direct-acting mutagen that has been shown to produce forestomach tumours following long term oral gavage exposure in rats and mice. Tumours have also been found in the bladder and lungs of female mice and the liver of male rats. Long term inhalation studies in the rat have proved negative, whereas some benign lung tumours have been reported in inhalation studies in mice. IARC has classified 1,3 dichloropropene in Group 2B (possible human carcinogen).

Dichlorprop

The half-lives for degradation of chlorophenoxy herbicides, including dichlorprop (CAS No. 120-36-5), or 2,4-DP, in the environment are in the order of several days. Chlorophenoxy herbicides are not often found in food.

Chlorophenoxy herbicides, as a group, have been classified in Group 2B (possible human carcinogen) by IARC. However, the available data from studies in exposed populations and experimental animals do not permit assessment of the carcinogenic potential to humans of any specific chlorophenoxy herbicide. Therefore, drinking-water guidelines for these compounds are based on a threshold approach for other toxic effects. In dietary studies in rats, slight liver hypertrophy was observed in a 3-month study, and effects in a 2-year study included hepatocellular swelling, mild anaemia, increased incidence of brown pigment in the kidneys (possibly indicative of slight degeneration of the tubular epithelium) and decreased urinary specific gravity and protein.

Dichlorvos

Dichlorvos (CAS No. 62-73-7) is a broad-spectrum organophosphorus insecticide used primarily for controlling household pests and for protecting stored products from insects. It is no longer approved for use in some jurisdictions because of concerns over its acute toxicity. Dichlorvos is expected to be very mobile in soils. It is rapidly degraded by microbial activity and hydrolysis in soil, and does not adsorb to sediments. Degradation in water occurs primarily through hydrolysis. There are relatively few studies on its occurrence in source waters. Exposure from food varies widely, depending on local circumstances and usage. Dichlorvos can be inhaled from its use as a domestic insecticide.

As with other organophosphorus insecticides, the inhibition of cholinesterase activity, causing neurotoxicity, is the most sensitive toxicological end-point following acute or repeated exposures to dichlorvos. Dichlorvos is unlikely to be genotoxic in vivo or to pose a carcinogenic risk to humans. Some reproductive toxicity has been observed in rats, but dichlorvos was not found to cause developmental toxicity or to be teratogenic.

Dicofol

Dicofol (CAS No. 115-32-2) is an organochlorine acaricide that has been registered for broad-spectrum contact, non-systemic control of plant-eating mites in cotton, tea and a wide variety of fruit, vegetable and ornamental crops. Products containing dicofol, which is manufactured from DDT, are being phased out in the USA and are no longer approved for use in the European Union. Dicofol is unlikely to reach water, but may do so if bound to particulate matter subject to runoff. Dicofol is only slightly soluble in water and binds strongly to soil. There are few data on the occurrence of dicofol in water. Exposure from food varies widely, depending on local circumstances and usage. Dicofol has been proposed as a persistent organic pollutant under the Stockholm Convention.

The primary effects of dicofol after short- or long-term exposure of experimental animals were body weight reduction associated with decreased feed intake, and increased liver weight accompanied by changes in liver enzyme activities. Dicofol caused liver tumours in male mice at doses associated with significant enzyme induction and liver hypertrophy. However, on the basis of the absence of genotoxicity in an adequate range of in vitro genotoxicity and in vivo chromosomal aberration tests, the absence of carcinogenic effects in rats and the expectation that the adenomas present in mice will exhibit a threshold, dicofol is unlikely to pose a carcinogenic risk to humans at anticipated dietary exposure levels. There is a margin of 20 000 between the upper bound of the ADI and the LOAEL for liver adenomas in the male mouse.

Di(2-ethylhexyl)adipate

Di(2-ethylhexyl)adipate (DEHA) is used mainly as a plasticizer for synthetic resins such as PVC. Reports of the presence of DEHA in surface water and drinking-water are scarce, but DEHA has occasionally been identified in drinking-water at levels of a few micrograms per litre. As a consequence of its use in PVC films, food is the most important source of human exposure (up to 20 mg/day).

DEHA is of low short-term toxicity; however, dietary levels above 6000 mg/kg of feed induce peroxisomal proliferation in the liver of rodents. This effect is often associated with the development of liver tumours. DEHA induced liver carcinomas in female mice at very high doses, but not in male mice or rats. It is not genotoxic. IARC has placed DEHA in Group 3 (not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans).

A health-based value of 80 μg/l can be calculated for DEHA on the basis of a TDI of 280 μg/kg body weight, based on fetotoxicity in rats, and allocating 1% of the TDI to drinking-water. However, because DEHA occurs at concentrations well below those of health concern, it is not considered necessary to derive a formal guideline value.

Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate

Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) is used primarily as a plasticizer. Exposure among individuals may vary considerably because of the broad nature of products into which DEHP is incorporated. In general, food will be the main exposure route.

In rats, DEHP is readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. In primates (including humans), absorption after ingestion is lower. Species differences are also observed in the metabolic profile. Most species excrete primarily the conjugated mono-ester in urine. Rats, however, predominantly excrete terminal oxidation products. DEHP is widely distributed in the body, with highest levels in liver and adipose tissue, without showing significant accumulation. The acute oral toxicity is low. The most striking effect in short-term toxicity studies is the proliferation of hepatic peroxisomes, indicated by increased peroxisomal enzyme activity and histopathological changes. The available information suggests that primates, including humans, are far less sensitive to this effect than rodents. In long-term oral carcinogenicity studies, hepatocellular carcinomas were found in rats and mice. IARC has concluded that DEHP is possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B). In 1988, JECFA evaluated DEHP and recommended that human exposure to this compound in food be reduced to the lowest level attainable. JECFA considered that this might be achieved by using alternative plasticizers or alternatives to plastic material containing DEHP. In a variety of in vitro and in vivo studies, DEHP and its metabolites have shown no evidence of genotoxicity, with the exception of induction of aneuploidy and cell transformation.

Dimethoate

Dimethoate (CAS No. 60-51-5) is an organophosphorus insecticide used to control a broad range of insects in agriculture, as well as the housefly. It has a half-life of 18 hours to 8 weeks and is not expected to persist in water, although it is relatively stable at pH 2–7. A total daily intake from food of 0.001 μg/kg body weight has been estimated.

In studies with human volunteers, dimethoate has been shown to be a cholinesterase inhibitor and a skin irritant. Dimethoate is not carcinogenic to rodents. JMPR concluded that although in vitro studies indicate that dimethoate has mutagenic potential, this potential does not appear to be expressed in vivo. In a multigeneration study of reproductive toxicity in rats, the NOAEL appeared to be 1.2 mg/kg body weight per day, but there was some indication that reproductive performance may have been affected at lower doses. No data were available to assess whether the effects on reproductive performance were secondary to inhibition of cholinesterase. JMPR concluded that it was not appropriate to base the ADI on the results of the studies of volunteers, as the crucial end-point (reproductive performance) has not been assessed in humans. It was suggested that there may be a need to re-evaluate the toxicity of dimethoate after the periodic review of the residue and analytical aspects of dimethoate has been completed if it is determined that omethoate is a major residue.

1,4-Dioxane

1,4-Dioxane is used as a stabilizer in chlorinated solvents and as a solvent for resins, oils and waxes, for agricultural and biochemical intermediates and for adhesives, sealants, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, rubber chemicals and surface coatings.

1,4-Dioxane caused hepatic and nasal cavity tumours in rodents in most long-term oral studies conducted. Tumours in peritoneum, skin and mammary gland were also observed in rats given a high dose. Lung tumours were specifically detected after intraperitoneal injection. Although cohort studies of workers did not reveal any elevation in the incidence of death by cancer, a significant increase in the incidence of liver cancer was found in a comparative mortality study. However, the evidence is inadequate for human carcinogenicity assessment because of small samples or lack of exposure data. A possibly weak genotoxic potential of 1,4-dioxane has been suggested. IARC has classified 1,4-dioxane in Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic to humans).

Diquat

Diquat (CAS No. 85-00-7; CAS No. 2764-72-9 for diquation) is a non-selective, quick-acting contact herbicide that is used for weed control on several food crops, for residential weed control on lawns and ornamental plants, and as an aquatic herbicide for the control of free-floating and submerged aquatic weeds in ponds and irrigation ditches. It is highly soluble in water but is strongly adsorbed to soil and is resistant to degradation in the sorbed state. Photochemical degradation in soil and water occurs in the presence of sunlight. Exposure from food is likely to be low.

The eye is the main target organ following short-term repeated exposure in rats and dogs. Effects on kidney, liver and haematological parameters are also observed. Diquat is not carcinogenic in mice or rats. In tests for genotoxicity, diquat gave equivocal or positive responses in the mammalian cell cytogenetic assay, but was negative in the in vivo mouse micronucleus assay and dominant lethal assay. No reproductive effects were observed in a two-generation reproductive toxicity study in rats, and diquat was not teratogenic in rats or rabbits.

Edetic acid

Human exposure to edetic acid, also known as ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid or EDTA, arises directly from its use in food additives, medicines and personal care and hygiene products. Exposure to EDTA from drinking-water will be mostly very low in comparison with that from other sources. Once EDTA is present in the aquatic environment, its speciation will depend on the water quality and the presence of trace metals with which it will combine. The removal of EDTA from communal wastewater by biodegradation in sewage purification plants is very limited.

Calcium disodium edetate is poorly absorbed from the gut. The long-term toxicity of EDTA is complicated by its ability to chelate essential and toxic metals. Those toxicological studies that are available indicate that the apparent toxicological effects of EDTA have in fact been due to zinc deficiency as a consequence of complexation. EDTA does not appear to be teratogenic or carcinogenic in experimental animals. The vast clinical experience of the use of EDTA in the treatment of metal poisoning has demonstrated its safety in humans.

Endosulfan

Endosulfan (CAS No. 115-29-7) is an insecticide used in countries throughout the world to control pests on fruit, vegetables and tea and on non-food crops such as tobacco and cotton. In addition to its agricultural use, it is used in the control of the tsetse fly, as a wood preservative and for the control of home garden pests. Endosulfan contamination does not appear to be widespread in the aquatic environment, but the chemical has been found in agricultural runoff and rivers in industrialized areas where it is manufactured or formulated, as well as in surface water and groundwater samples collected from hazardous waste sites in the USA. Surface water samples in the USA generally contain less than 1 μg/l. The main source of exposure of the general population is food, but residues have generally been found to be well below the FAO/WHO maximum residue limits. Another important route of exposure to endosulfan for the general population is the use of tobacco products.

JMPR concluded that endosulfan is not genotoxic, and no carcinogenic effects were noted in long-term studies using mice and rats. The kidney is the target organ for toxicity. Several recent studies have shown that endosulfan, alone or in combination with other pesticides, may bind to estrogen receptors and perturb the endocrine system. A health-based value of 20 μg/l can be calculated for endosulfan on the basis of an ADI of 0–0.006 mg/kg body weight, based on results from a 2-year dietary study of toxicity in rats and supported by a 78-week study in mice, a 1-year study in dogs and a developmental toxicity study in rats. However, because endosulfan occurs at concentrations well below those of health concern, it is not considered necessary to derive a formal guideline value.

Endrin

Endrin (CAS No. 72-20-8) is a broad-spectrum foliar insecticide that acts against a wide range of agricultural pests. It is also used as a rodenticide. There is now very little use of endrin. Small amounts of endrin are present in some foods, but the total intake from food has decreased significantly.

Toxicological data are insufficient to indicate whether endrin is a carcinogenic hazard to humans. The primary site of action of endrin is the central nervous system.

Epichlorohydrin

Epichlorohydrin is used for the manufacture of glycerol, unmodified epoxy resins and water treatment coagulant polymers and some ion exchange resins. No quantitative data are available on its occurrence in food or drinking-water. Epichlorohydrin is slowly hydrolysed in aqueous media.

Epichlorohydrin is rapidly and extensively absorbed following oral, inhalation or dermal exposure. It binds easily to cellular components. Major toxic effects are local irritation and damage to the central nervous system. It induces squamous cell carcinomas in the nasal cavity by inhalation and forestomach tumours by the oral route. It has been shown to be genotoxic in vitro and in vivo. IARC has placed epichlorohydrin in Group 2A (probably carcinogenic to humans).

Ethylbenzene

The primary sources of ethylbenzene in the environment are the petroleum industry and the use of petroleum products. Because of its physicochemical properties, more than 96% of ethylbenzene in the environment can be expected to be present in air. Values of up to 26 μg/m³ in air have been reported. Ethylbenzene is found in trace amounts in surface water, groundwater, drinking-water and food.

Ethylbenzene is readily absorbed by the oral, inhalation or dermal route. In humans, storage in fat has been reported. Ethylbenzene is almost completely converted to soluble metabolites, which are excreted rapidly in urine. The acute oral toxicity is low. No definite conclusions can be drawn from limited teratogenicity data. No data on reproduction, long-term toxicity or carcinogenicity are available. Ethylbenzene has shown no evidence of genotoxicity in in vitro or in vivo systems.

Fenitrothion

Fenitrothion (CAS No. 122-14-5) is mainly used in agriculture for controlling insects on rice, cereals, fruits, vegetables, stored grains and cotton and in forest areas. It is also used for the control of flies, mosquitoes and cockroaches in public health programmes and indoor use. Fenitrothion is stable in water only in the absence of sunlight or microbial contamination. In soil, biodegradation is the primary route of degradation, although photolysis may also play a role. Fenitrothion residues detected in water were low (maximum 1.30 μg/l) during the spruce budworm spray programme. Following the spraying of forests to control spruce budworm, water samples did not contain detectable amounts of fenitrothion; post-spray samples contained less than 0.01 μg/l. Levels of fenitrothion residues in fruits, vegetables and cereal grains decline rapidly after treatment, with a half-life of 1–2 days. Intake of fenitrothion appears to be primarily (95%) from food.

On the basis of testing in an adequate range of studies in vitro and in vivo, JMPR concluded that fenitrothion is unlikely to be genotoxic. It also concluded that fenitrothion is unlikely to pose a carcinogenic risk to humans. In long-term studies of toxicity, inhibition of cholinesterase activity was the main toxicological finding in all species. A health-based value of 8 μg/l can be calculated for fenitrothion on the basis of an ADI of 0–0.005 mg/kg body weight, based on a NOAEL of 0.5 mg/kg body weight per day for inhibition of brain and erythrocyte cholinesterase activity in a 2-year study of toxicity in rats and supported by a NOAEL of 0.57 mg/kg body weight per day for inhibition of brain and erythrocyte cholinesterase activity in a 3-month study of ocular toxicity in rats and a NOAEL of 0.65 mg/kg body weight per day for reduced food consumption and body weight gain in a study of reproductive toxicity in rats, and allocating 5% of the upper limit of the ADI to drinking-water. However, because fenitrothion occurs at concentrations well below those of health concern, it is not considered necessary to derive a formal guideline value.

Fenoprop

The half-lives for degradation of chlorophenoxy herbicides, including fenoprop (CAS No. 93-72-1), also known as 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy propionic acid or 2,4,5-TP, in the environment are in the order of several days. Chlorophenoxy herbicides are not often found in food.

Chlorophenoxy herbicides, as a group, have been classified in Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic to humans) by IARC. However, the available data from studies in exposed populations and experimental animals do not permit assessment of the carcinogenic potential to humans of any specific chlorophenoxy herbicide. Therefore, drinking-water guidelines for these compounds are based on a threshold approach for other toxic effects. Effects observed in long-term studies with dogs given fenoprop in the diet include mild degeneration and necrosis of hepatocytes and fibroblastic proliferation in one study and severe liver pathology in another study. In rats, increased kidney weight was observed in two long-term dietary studies.

Fluoride¹

Fluorine is a common element that is widely distributed in Earth's crust and exists in the form of fluorides in a number of minerals, such as fluorspar, cryolite and fluorapatite. Traces of fluorides are present in many waters, with higher concentrations often associated with groundwaters. In some areas rich in fluoride-containing minerals, well water may contain up to about 10 mg of fluoride per litre, although much higher concentrations can be found. High fluoride concentrations can be found in many parts of the world, particularly in parts of India, China, Central Africa and South America, but high concentrations can be encountered locally in most parts of the world. Virtually all foodstuffs contain at least traces of fluorine. All vegetation contains some fluoride, which is absorbed from soil and water. Tea in particular can contain high fluoride concentrations, and levels in dry tea are on average 100 mg/kg.

Fluoride is widely used in dental preparations to combat dental caries, particularly in areas of high sugar intake. These can be in the form of tablets, mouthwashes, toothpaste, varnishes or gels for local application. In some countries, fluoride may also be added to table salt or drinking-water in order to provide protection against dental caries. The amounts added to drinking-water are such that final concentrations are usually between 0.5 and 1 mg/l. The fluoride in final water is always present as fluoride ions, whether from natural sources or from artificial fluoridation.

Total daily fluoride exposure can vary markedly from one region to another. This will depend on the concentration of fluoride in drinking-water and the amount drunk, levels in foodstuffs and the use of fluoridated dental preparations. In addition, fluoride exposure in some areas is considerably higher as a consequence of a range of practices, including the consumption of brick tea and the cooking and drying of food with high-fluoride coal.

After oral uptake, water-soluble fluorides are rapidly and almost completely absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, although this may be reduced by complex formation with aluminium, phosphorus, magnesium or calcium. There is no difference in absorption between natural or added fluoride in drinking-water. Fluoride in inhaled particles—from high-fluoride coal, for example—is also absorbed, depending on the particle size and solubility of the fluoride compounds present. Absorbed fluoride is rapidly distributed throughout the body, where it is incorporated into teeth and bones, with virtually no storage in soft tissues. Fluoride in teeth and bone can be mobilized after external exposure has ceased or been reduced. Fluoride is excreted via urine, faeces and sweat.

Fluoride may be an essential element for humans; however, essentiality has not been demonstrated unequivocally. Meanwhile, there is evidence of fluoride being a beneficial element with regard to the prevention of dental caries.

To produce signs of acute fluoride intoxication, minimum oral doses of about 1 mg of fluoride per kilogram of body weight were required. Many epidemiological studies of possible adverse effects of the long-term ingestion of fluoride via drinking-water have been carried out. These studies clearly establish that high fluoride intakes primarily produce effects on skeletal tissues (bones and teeth). Low concentrations provide protection against dental caries, both in children and in adults. The protective effects of fluoride increase with concentration up to about 2 mg of fluoride per litre of drinking-water; the minimum concentration of fluoride in drinking-water required to produce it is approximately 0.5 mg/l. However, fluoride can also have an adverse effect on tooth enamel and may give rise to mild dental fluorosis (prevalence: 12–33%) at drinking-water concentrations between 0.9 and 1.2 mg/l, depending on drinking-water intake and exposure to fluoride from other sources. Mild dental fluorosis may not be detectable except by specialist examination. The risk of dental fluorosis will depend on the total intake of fluoride from all sources and not just the concentration in drinking-water.

Elevated fluoride intakes can have more serious effects on skeletal tissues. Skeletal fluorosis (with adverse changes in bone structure) may be observed when drinking-water contains 3–6 mg of fluoride per litre, particularly with high water consumption. Crippling skeletal fluorosis usually develops only where drinking-water contains over 10 mg of fluoride per litre. IPCS concluded that there is clear evidence from India and China that skeletal fluorosis and an increased risk of bone fractures occur at a total intake of 14 mg of fluoride per day. This conclusion was supported by a review by the United States National Research Council in 2006. The relationship between exposure and response for adverse effects in bone is frequently difficult to ascertain because of inadequacies in most of the epidemiological studies. IPCS concluded from estimates based on studies from China and India that for a total intake of 14 mg/day, there is a clear excess risk of skeletal adverse effects; and there is suggestive evidence of an increased risk of effects on the skeleton at total fluoride intakes above about 6 mg/day.

Several epidemiological studies are available on the possible association between fluoride in drinking-water and cancer. IPCS evaluated these studies and concluded that, overall, the evidence of carcinogenicity in laboratory animals is inconclusive and that the available evidence does not support the hypothesis that fluoride causes cancer in humans; however, the data on bone cancer are limited. The results of several epidemiological studies on the possible adverse effects of fluoride in drinking-water on pregnancy outcome indicate that there is no relationship between the rates of Down syndrome or congenital malformation and the consumption of fluoridated drinking-water.

There is no evidence to suggest that the guideline value of 1.5 mg/l set in 1984 and reaffirmed in 1993 needs to be revised. Concentrations above this value carry an increasing risk of dental fluorosis, and much higher concentrations lead to skeletal fluorosis. The value is higher than that recommended for artificial fluoridation of water supplies, which is usually 0.5–1.0 mg/l.

In setting national standards or local guidelines for fluoride or in evaluating the possible health consequences of exposure to fluoride, it is essential to consider the average daily intake of water by the population of interest and the intake of fluoride from other sources (e.g. from food and air). Where the intakes are likely to approach, or be greater than, 6 mg/day, it would be appropriate to consider setting a standard or local guideline at a concentration lower than 1.5 mg/l.

Formaldehyde

Formaldehyde occurs in industrial effluents and is emitted into air from plastic materials and resin glues. Formaldehyde in drinking-water results primarily from the oxidation of natural organic matter during ozonation and chlorination. Concentrations of up to 30 μg/l have been found in ozonated drinking-water. Formaldehyde can also be found in drinking-water as a result of release from polyacetal plastic fittings. Formaldehyde's physicochemical properties suggest that it is unlikely to volatilize from water, so exposure by inhalation during showering is expected to be low.

Rats and mice exposed to formaldehyde by inhalation exhibited an increased incidence of carcinomas of the nasal cavity at doses that caused irritation of the nasal epithelium. Ingestion of formaldehyde in drinking-water for 2 years caused stomach irritation in rats. Papillomas of the stomach associated with severe tissue irritation were observed in one study. IARC has classified formaldehyde in Group 1 (carcinogenic to humans). The weight of evidence indicates that formaldehyde is not carcinogenic by the oral route.

Owing to formaldehyde's high reactivity, effects in the tissue of first contact following ingestion are more likely to be related to the concentration of the formaldehyde consumed than to its total intake. A tolerable concentration of 2.6 mg/l for ingested formaldehyde has been established based on a NOEL of 260 mg/l for histopathological effects in the oral and gastric mucosa of rats administered formaldehyde in their drinking-water for 2 years, using an uncertainty factor of 100 (for interspecies and intraspecies variation). In view of the significant difference between the expected concentrations of formaldehyde in drinking-water and the tolerable concentration, it is not considered necessary to set a formal guideline value for formaldehyde.

Glyphosate and AMPA

Glyphosate (CAS No. 1071-83-6) is a broad-spectrum herbicide used in both agriculture and forestry and for aquatic weed control. Microbial biodegradation of glyphosate occurs in soil, aquatic sediment and water, the major metabolite being aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) (CAS No. 1066-51-9). Glyphosate is chemically stable in water and is not subject to photochemical degradation. The low mobility of glyphosate in soil indicates minimal potential for the contamination of groundwater. Glyphosate can, however, enter surface and subsurface waters after direct use near aquatic environments or by runoff or leaching from terrestrial applications.

Glyphosate and AMPA have similar toxicological profiles, and both are considered to exhibit low toxicity. A health-based value of 0.9 mg/l can be derived based on the group ADI for AMPA alone or in combination with glyphosate of 0–0.3 mg/kg body weight, based upon a NOAEL of 32 mg/kg body weight per day, the highest dose tested, identified in a 26-month study of toxicity in rats fed technical-grade glyphosate and using an uncertainty factor of 100 (for interspecies and intraspecies variation).

Because of their low toxicity, the health-based value derived for AMPA alone or in combination with glyphosate is orders of magnitude higher than concentrations of glyphosate or AMPA normally found in drinking-water. Under usual conditions, therefore, the presence of glyphosate and AMPA in drinking-water does not represent a hazard to human health. For this reason, the establishment of a formal guideline value for glyphosate and AMPA is not deemed necessary.

Halogenated acetonitriles (dichloroacetonitrile, dibromoacetonitrile, bromochloroacetonitrile, trichloroacetonitrile)

Halogenated acetonitriles are produced during water chlorination or chloramination from naturally occurring substances, including algae, fulvic acid and proteinaceous material. In general, increasing temperature or decreasing pH is associated with increasing concentrations of halogenated acetonitriles. Ambient bromide levels appear to influence, to some degree, the speciation of halogenated acetonitrile compounds. Dichloroacetonitrile is by far the most predominant halogenated acetonitrile species detected in drinking-water.

IARC has concluded that dichloroacetonitrile, dibromoacetonitrile, bromochloroacetonitrile and trichloroacetonitrile are not classifiable as to their carcinogenicity in humans. Dichloroacetonitrile and bromochloroacetonitrile have been shown to be mutagenic in bacterial assays, whereas results for dibromoacetonitrile and trichloroacetonitrile were negative. All four of these halogenated acetonitriles induced sister chromatid exchange and DNA strand breaks and adducts in mammalian cells in vitro but were negative in the mouse micronucleus test.

The majority of reproductive and developmental toxicity studies of the halogenated acetonitriles were conducted using tricaprylin as a vehicle for gavage administration of the compound under study. As tricaprylin was subsequently demonstrated to be a developmental toxicant that potentiated the effects of trichloroacetonitrile and, presumably, other halogenated acetonitriles, results reported for developmental studies using tricaprylin as the gavage vehicle are likely to overestimate the developmental toxicity of these halogenated acetonitriles.

Hardness

Hardness in water is caused by a variety of dissolved polyvalent metallic ions, predominantly calcium and magnesium cations. It is usually expressed as milligrams of calcium carbonate per litre. Hardness is the traditional measure of the capacity of water to react with soap, hard water requiring considerably more soap to produce a lather.

Natural and treated waters have a wide range of mineral content, from very low levels in rainwater and naturally soft and softened water to higher levels in naturally hard waters. Bottled and packaged waters can be naturally mineralized or naturally soft or demineralized. Thus, the mineral consumption from drinking-water and cooking water will vary widely, depending upon location, treatment and water source.

The degree of hardness of drinking-water is important for aesthetic acceptability by consumers (see chapter 10) and for economic and operational considerations. Many hard waters are softened for those reasons using several applicable technologies. The choice of the most appropriate conditioning technology will depend on local circumstances (e.g. water quality issues, piping materials, corrosion) and will be applied either centrally or in individual homes as a consumer preference.

Consumers should be informed of the mineral composition of their water, whether or not it is modified. The contribution of drinking-water minerals to mineral nutrition should be considered where changes in supply are proposed or where less traditional sources, such as recycled water, seawater or brackish water, are processed and exploited for drinking-water. The treatments used remove most minerals, and stabilization of water is always necessary prior to distribution.

Drinking-water can be a contributor to calcium and magnesium intake and could be important for those who are marginal for calcium and magnesium. Where drinking-water supplies are supplemented with or replaced by demineralized water that requires conditioning, consideration should be given to adding calcium and magnesium salts to achieve concentrations similar to those that the population received from the original supply. Modification of calcium and magnesium concentrations in drinking-water for health reasons should comply with the technical requirements to provide water suitable for distribution.

Although there is evidence from epidemiological studies for a protective effect of magnesium or hardness on cardiovascular mortality, the evidence is being debated and does not prove causality. Further studies are being conducted. There are insufficient data to suggest either minimum or maximum concentrations of minerals at this time, as adequate intake will depend on a range of other factors. Therefore, no guideline values are proposed.

Heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide

Heptachlor (CAS No. 76-44-8) is a broad-spectrum insecticide, the use of which has been banned or restricted in many countries. At present, the major use of heptachlor is for termite control by subsurface injection into soil. Heptachlor is quite persistent in soil, where it is mainly transformed to its epoxide. Heptachlor epoxide (CAS No. 1024-57-3) is very resistant to further degradation. Heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide bind to soil particles and migrate very slowly. Heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide have been found in drinking-water at nanogram per litre levels. Diet is considered to represent the major source of exposure to heptachlor, although intake is decreasing significantly, as its use has substantially declined.

Prolonged exposure to heptachlor has been associated with damage to the liver and central nervous system toxicity. In 1991, IARC reviewed the data on heptachlor and concluded that the evidence for carcinogenicity was sufficient in animals and inadequate in humans, classifying it in Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic to humans). A health-based value of 0.03 μg/l can be calculated for heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide on the basis of a PTDI of 0.1 μg/kg body weight, based on a NOAEL for heptachlor of 0.025 mg/kg body weight per day from two studies in the dog, taking into consideration inadequacies of the database and allocating 1% of the PTDI to drinking-water. However, because heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide occur at concentrations well below those of health concern, it is not considered necessary to derive a formal guideline value. It should also be noted that concentrations below 0.1 μg/l are generally not achievable using conventional treatment technology.

Hexachlorobenzene

The major agricultural application for hexachlorobenzene (CAS No. 118-74-1), or HCB, was as a seed dressing for crops to prevent the growth of fungi, but its use is now uncommon. At present, it appears mainly as a by-product of several chemical processes or an impurity in some pesticides. HCB is distributed throughout the environment because it is mobile and resistant to degradation. It bioaccumulates in organisms because of its physicochemical properties and its slow elimination. HCB is commonly detected at low levels in food, and it is generally present at low concentrations in ambient air. It has been detected only infrequently, and at very low concentrations (below 0.1 μg/l), in drinking-water supplies.

IARC has evaluated the evidence for the carcinogenicity of HCB in animals and humans and assigned it to Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic to humans). HCB has been shown to induce tumours in three animal species and at a variety of sites. A health-based value of 1 μg/l can be derived for HCB by applying the linearized multistage low-dose extrapolation model to liver tumours observed in female rats in a 2-year dietary study. Using an alternative (tumorigenic dose₀₅, or TD₀₅) approach, a TDI of 0.16 μg/kg body weight can be calculated, which corresponds to a health-based value of approximately 0.05 μg/l, if one assumes a 1% allocation of the TDI to drinking-water. It should be noted that concentrations in food have been falling steadily, and this allocation factor may be considered very conservative.

Because the health-based values derived from both of these approaches are considerably higher than the concentrations at which HCB is detected in drinking-water (i.e. sub-nanograms per litre), when it is detected, it is not considered necessary to establish a formal guideline value for HCB in drinking-water. HCB is listed under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants.

Hexachlorobutadiene

Hexachlorobutadiene, or HCBD, is used as a solvent in chlorine gas production, a pesticide, an intermediate in the manufacture of rubber compounds and a lubricant. Concentrations of up to 6 μg/l have been reported in the effluents from chemical manufacturing plants. HCBD is also found in air and food.

HCBD is easily absorbed and metabolized via conjugation with glutathione. This conjugate can be further metabolized to a nephrotoxic derivative. Kidney tumours were observed in a long-term oral study in rats. HCBD has not been shown to be carcinogenic by other routes of exposure. IARC has placed HCBD in Group 3 (not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans). Positive and negative results for HCBD have been obtained in bacterial assays for point mutation; however, several metabolites have given positive results.

Hydrogen sulfide

Hydrogen sulfide is a gas with an offensive “rotten eggs” odour that is detectable at very low concentrations, below 0.8 μg/m³ in air. It is formed when sulfides are hydrolysed in water. However, the level of hydrogen sulfide found in drinking-water will usually be low, because sulfides are readily oxidized in well-aerated or chlorinated water.

The acute toxicity to humans of hydrogen sulfide following inhalation of the gas is high; eye irritation can be observed at concentrations of 15–30 mg/m³. Although oral toxicity data are lacking, it is unlikely that a person could consume a harmful dose of hydrogen sulfide from drinking-water. Consequently, no guideline value is proposed. However, hydrogen sulfide can be easily detected in drinking-water by taste or odour (see chapter 10).

Inorganic tin

Tin is used principally in the production of coatings used in the food industry. Food, particularly canned food, therefore represents the major route of human exposure to tin. For the general population, drinking-water is not a significant source of tin, and levels in drinking-water greater than 1–2 μg/l are exceptional. However, there is increasing use of tin in solder, which may be used in domestic plumbing, and tin has been proposed for use as a corrosion inhibitor.

Tin and inorganic tin compounds are poorly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, do not accumulate in tissues and are rapidly excreted, primarily in faeces.

No increased incidence of tumours was observed in long-term carcinogenicity studies conducted in mice and rats fed tin(II) chloride. Tin has not been shown to be teratogenic or fetotoxic in mice, rats or hamsters. In rats, the NOAEL in a long-term feeding study was 20 mg/kg body weight per day.

The main adverse effect on humans of excessive levels of tin in canned beverages (above 150 mg/kg) or other canned foods (above 250 mg/kg) has been acute gastric irritation. There is no evidence of adverse effects in humans associated with chronic exposure to tin.

In 1989, JECFA established a PTWI of 14 mg/kg body weight from a TDI of 2 mg/kg body weight on the basis that the problem with tin is associated with acute gastrointestinal irritancy, the threshold for which is about 200 mg/kg in food. This was reaffirmed by JECFA in 2000. In view of its low toxicity, the presence of tin in drinking-water does not, therefore, represent a hazard to human health. For this reason, the establishment of a guideline value for inorganic tin is not deemed necessary.

Iodine

Iodine occurs naturally in water in the form of iodide. Traces of iodine are produced by oxidation of iodide during water treatment. Iodine is occasionally used for water disinfection in the field or in emergency situations.

Iodine is an essential element for the synthesis of thyroid hormones. Estimates of the dietary requirement for adult humans range from 80 to 150 μg/day; in many parts of the world, there are dietary deficiencies in iodine, resulting in severe adverse effects on neurological development. In 1988, JECFA set a provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) for iodine of 1 mg/day (17 μg/kg body weight per day) from all sources, based primarily on data on the effects of iodide. However, recent data from studies in rats indicate that the effects of iodine in drinking-water on thyroid hormone concentrations in the blood differ from those of iodide.

Available data therefore suggest that derivation of a guideline value for iodine on the basis of information on the effects of iodide is inappropriate, and there are few relevant data on the effects of iodine. Because iodine is not recommended for long-term disinfection, lifetime exposure to iodine concentrations such as might occur from water disinfection is unlikely. For these reasons, a guideline value for iodine has not been established at this time. There is, however, a need for guidance concerning the use of iodine as a disinfectant in emergency situations and for travellers.

Iron

Iron is one of the most abundant metals in Earth's crust. It is found in natural fresh waters at levels ranging from 0.5 to 50 mg/l. Iron may also be present in drinking-water as a result of the use of iron coagulants or the corrosion of steel and cast iron pipes during water distribution.

Iron is an essential element in human nutrition, particularly in the iron(II) oxidation state. Estimates of the minimum daily requirement for iron depend on age, sex, physiological status and iron bioavailability and range from about 10 to 50 mg/day.

As a precaution against storage in the body of excessive iron, in 1983, JECFA established a PMTDI of 0.8 mg/kg body weight, which applies to iron from all sources except for iron oxides used as colouring agents and iron supplements taken during pregnancy and lactation or for specific clinical requirements. An allocation of 10% of this PMTDI to drinking-water gives a value of about 2 mg/l, which does not present a hazard to health. The taste and appearance of drinking-water will usually be affected below this level (see chapter 10).

No guideline value for iron in drinking-water is proposed.

Isoproturon

Isoproturon (CAS No. 34123-59-6) is a selective, systemic herbicide used in the control of annual grasses and broad-leaved weeds in cereals. It can be photodegraded, hydrolysed and biodegraded and persists for periods ranging from days to weeks. It is mobile in soil. There is evidence that exposure to this compound through food is low.

Isoproturon is of low acute toxicity and low to moderate toxicity following short-term and long-term exposures. It does not possess significant genotoxic activity, but it causes marked enzyme induction and liver enlargement. Isoproturon caused an increase in hepatocellular tumours in male and female rats, but this was apparent only at doses that also caused liver toxicity. Isoproturon appears to be a tumour promoter rather than a complete carcinogen.

Lead

Lead is used principally in the production of lead-acid batteries, solder and alloys. The organolead compounds tetraethyl and tetramethyl lead have also been used extensively as antiknock and lubricating agents in petrol, although their use for these purposes in many countries has largely been phased out. Owing to the decreasing use of lead-containing additives in petrol and of lead-containing solder in the food processing industry, concentrations in air and food are declining; in most countries, lead levels in blood are also declining unless there are specific sources, such as dust from leaded paint or occupational/household recycling of lead-containing materials. Lead is rarely present in tap water as a result of its dissolution from natural sources; rather, its presence is primarily from corrosive water effects on household plumbing systems containing lead in pipes, solder or fittings (including alloy fittings with high lead content), or from the service connections to homes. The amount of lead dissolved from the plumbing system depends on several factors, including pH, temperature, alkalinity, scale in pipe and standing time of the water, with soft, acidic water being the most plumbosolvent. Free chlorine residuals in drinking-water tend to form more insoluble lead-containing deposits, whereas chloramine residuals may form more soluble sediments in lead pipe. Accordingly, significant changes in the water quality of a supply, resulting from, for example, changes in treatment or changes of source, can result in changes in plumbosolvency or solubilization of lead deposits, or both.

Exposure to lead is associated with a wide range of effects, including various neurodevelopmental effects, mortality (mainly due to cardiovascular diseases), impaired renal function, hypertension, impaired fertility and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Impaired neurodevelopment in children is generally associated with lower blood lead concentrations than the other effects, the weight of evidence is greater for neurodevelopmental effects than for other health effects and the results across studies are more consistent than those for other effects. For adults, the adverse effect associated with lowest blood lead concentrations for which the weight of evidence is greatest and most consistent is a lead-associated increase in systolic blood pressure. JECFA concluded that the effects on neurodevelopment and systolic blood pressure provided the appropriate bases for dose–response analyses.

Based on the dose–response analyses, JECFA estimated that the previously established PTWI of 25 μg/kg body weight is associated with a decrease of at least 3 intelligence quotient (IQ) points in children and an increase in systolic blood pressure of approximately 3 mmHg (0.4 kPa) in adults. These changes are important when viewed as a shift in the distribution of IQ or blood pressure within a population. JECFA therefore concluded that the PTWI could no longer be considered health protective, and it was withdrawn.

Because the dose–response analyses do not provide any indication of a threshold for the key effects of lead, JECFA concluded that it was not possible to establish a new PTWI that would be considered to be health protective. JECFA reaffirmed that because of the neurodevelopmental effects, fetuses, infants and children are the subgroups that are most sensitive to lead.

It needs to be recognized that lead is exceptional compared with other chemical hazards, in that most lead in drinking-water arises from lead service connections and plumbing in buildings, and the remedy consists principally of removing plumbing and fittings containing lead, which requires much time and money. It is therefore emphasized that all other practical measures to reduce total exposure to lead, including corrosion control, should be implemented. New sources of lead, such as lead service connections and solder, should not be introduced into any system, and low lead alloy fittings should be used in repairs and new installations.

In terms of monitoring, if the monitoring objective is to identify the presence of lead in the internal plumbing of a building, then the sample should be from the tap. The sampling protocols also depend on the objective of taking the samples. First-draw samples typically will have the highest lead concentrations, but this may not be reflected in normal use if the same system provides water for toilet flushing, etc. Flushed samples, in contrast, give consistent values, but reflect the minimum contact time between the water and the lead-containing material. The random daytime samples, although most truly reflecting the water that the consumer drinks, give the most variable levels; hence, it is necessary to collect more samples to determine the mean level of exposure. Where there is a need to verify that lead service connections, lead solder and/or high-lead fittings have not been installed in new or repaired systems, the approach used is to take a worst-case sample that reflects an extended period of stagnation and to maximize the chance of identifying the presence of lead. Extended stagnation with sequential volume can also be used to identify sources or locations of lead as an investigative activity.

Lindane

Lindane (γ-hexachlorocyclohexane; γ-HCH) (CAS No. 58-89-9) is used as an insecticide on fruit and vegetable crops, for seed treatment and in forestry. It is also used as a therapeutic pesticide in humans and animals. Several countries have restricted the use of lindane. Lindane can be degraded in soil and rarely leaches to groundwater. In surface waters, it can be removed by evaporation. Exposure of humans occurs mainly via food, but this is decreasing. There may also be exposure from its use in public health and as a wood preservative.

Lindane was toxic to the kidney and liver after administration orally, dermally or by inhalation in short-term and long-term studies of toxicity and reproductive toxicity in rats. The renal toxicity of lindane was specific to male rats and was considered not to be relevant to human risk assessment, as it is a consequence of accumulation of α_2u-globulin, a protein that is not found in humans. Hepatocellular hypertrophy was observed in a number of studies in mice, rats and rabbits and was reversed only partially after recovery periods of up to 6 weeks. Lindane did not induce a carcinogenic response in rats or dogs, but it caused an increased incidence of adenomas and carcinomas of the liver in agouti and pseudoagouti mice, but not in black or any other strains of mice, in a study of the role of genetic background in the latency and incidence of tumorigenesis. JMPR concluded that there was no evidence of genotoxicity. In the absence of genotoxicity and on the basis of the weight of the evidence from the studies of carcinogenicity, JMPR concluded that lindane is not likely to pose a carcinogenic risk to humans. Further, in an epidemiological study designed to assess the potential association between breast cancer and exposure to chlorinated pesticides, no correlation with lindane was found.

Malathion

Malathion (CAS No. 121-75-5) is commonly used to control mosquitoes and a variety of insects that attack fruits, vegetables, landscaping plants and shrubs. It can also be found in other pesticide products used indoors, on pets to control ticks and insects and to control human head and body lice. Under least favourable conditions (i.e. low pH and little organic content), malathion may persist in water with a half-life of months or even years. However, under most conditions, the half-life appears to be roughly 7–14 days. Malathion has been detected in surface water and drinking-water at concentrations below 2 μg/l.

Malathion inhibits cholinesterase activity in mice, rats and human volunteers. It increased the incidence of liver adenomas in mice when administered in the diet. Most of the evidence indicates that malathion is not genotoxic, although some studies indicate that it can produce chromosomal aberrations and sister chromatid exchange in vitro. JMPR has concluded that malathion is not genotoxic.

A health-based value of 0.9 mg/l can be calculated for malathion based on an allocation of 10% of the upper limit of the JMPR ADI—based on a NOAEL of 29 mg/kg body weight per day in a 2-year study of toxicity and carcinogenicity in rats, using an uncertainty factor of 100 for interspecies and intraspecies variation and supported by a NOAEL of 25 mg/kg body weight per day in a developmental toxicity study in rabbits—to drinking-water. However, intake of malathion from all sources is generally low and well below the upper limit of the ADI. As the chemical occurs in drinking-water at concentrations much lower than the health-based value, the presence of malathion in drinking-water under usual conditions is unlikely to represent a hazard to human health. For this reason, it is considered unnecessary to derive a formal guideline value for malathion in drinking-water.

Manganese

Manganese is one of the most abundant metals in Earth's crust, usually occurring with iron. It is used principally in the manufacture of iron and steel alloys, as an oxidant for cleaning, bleaching and disinfection (as potassium permanganate) and as an ingredient in various products. More recently, it has been used in an organic compound, methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl, or MMT, as an octane enhancer in petrol in North America. Manganese greensands are used in some locations for potable water treatment. Manganese is naturally occurring in many surface water and groundwater sources, particularly in anaerobic or low oxidation conditions, and this is the most important source for drinking-water. Manganese occurs naturally in many food sources, and the greatest exposure to manganese is usually from food.

Manganese is an essential element for humans and other animals. Several epidemiological studies have suggested that soluble manganese is associated with adverse effects on learning in children. These findings remain to be confirmed and the association has yet to be demonstrated as causal. Experimental animal data, especially rodent data, are not appropriate for human risk assessment because the physiological requirements for manganese vary among different species. Further, rodents are of limited value in assessing neurobehavioural effects, because the neurological effects (e.g. tremor, gait disorders) seen in primates are often preceded or accompanied by psychological symptoms (e.g. irritability, emotional lability), that are not apparent in rodents. The only primate study is of limited use in a quantitative risk assessment because only one dose group was studied in a small number of animals and the manganese content in the basal diet was not provided.

A health-based value of 0.4 mg/l can be derived for manganese based on the upper range value of manganese intake of 11 mg/day, identified using dietary surveys, at which there are no observed adverse effects, using an uncertainty factor of 3 to take into consideration the possible increased bioavailability of manganese from water, allocating 20% of the TDI to drinking-water and assuming the consumption of 2 litres of water per day by a 60 kg adult. As this health-based value is well above concentrations of manganese normally causing acceptability problems in drinking-water (see chapter 10), it is not considered necessary to derive a formal guideline value. Accordingly, aesthetic as well as health aspects should be considered when setting national standards and regulations, and confirming the acceptability of drinking-water. There are circumstances, however, where manganese can remain in solution at higher concentrations in some acidic or anaerobic waters, particularly groundwater.

MCPA

MCPA is a phenoxyacetic acid herbicide that is found in various formulations: as the free acid (CAS No. 94-74-6), as a dimethylamine salt (CAS No. 2039-46-5), as a sodium salt (CAS No. 3653-48-3) and as a 2-ethylhexyl ester (CAS No. 29450-45-1). It is a post-emergence herbicide that is widely used against broadleaf weeds in agriculture and horticulture and on grassland and lawns. All forms of MCPA will dissociate in water to the acid (anion) form. MCPA is highly soluble in water. Biological degradation is an important process in determining MCPA's environmental fate. Chlorophenols and chlorocresols are potential soil metabolites and may, if present in water, give rise to unacceptable tastes. Surface water may be contaminated via spray drift and runoff, whereas groundwater may be contaminated via leaching from soil. Exposure from food is likely to be low.

The target organs for the MCPA ion are the kidney, liver and blood. MCPA is not carcinogenic in mice or rats, and the MCPA ion exhibits no genotoxic potential. In multigeneration studies in rats, there was no evidence of reproductive toxicity up to the highest dose tested. The MCPA ion was not teratogenic in rats or rabbits.

Mecoprop

The half-lives for degradation of chlorophenoxy herbicides, including mecoprop (CAS No. 93-65-2; 7085-19-0 racemic mixture), also known as 2(2-methyl-chlorophenoxy) propionic acid or MCPP, in the environment are in the order of several days. Chlorophenoxy herbicides are not often found in food.

Chlorophenoxy herbicides, as a group, have been classified in Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic to humans) by IARC. However, the available data from studies in exposed populations and experimental animals do not permit assessment of the carcinogenic potential to humans of any specific chlorophenoxy herbicide. Therefore, drinking-water guidelines for these compounds are based on a threshold approach for other toxic effects. Effects of dietary administration of mecoprop in short-term and long-term studies include decreased relative kidney weight (rats and dogs), increased relative liver weight (rats), effects on blood parameters (rats and dogs) and depressed body weight gain (dogs).

Mercury

Mercury is used in the electrolytic production of chlorine, in electrical appliances, in dental amalgams and as a raw material for various mercury compounds. Methylation of inorganic mercury has been shown to occur in fresh water and in seawater, although almost all mercury in uncontaminated drinking-water is thought to be in the form of Hg²⁺. Thus, it is unlikely that there is any direct risk of the intake of organic mercury compounds, especially of alkylmercurials, as a result of the ingestion of drinking-water. However, there is a possibility that methylmercury will be converted into inorganic mercury. Food is the main source of mercury in non-occupationally exposed populations; the mean dietary intake of mercury in various countries ranges from 2 to 20 μg/day per person.

The toxic effects of inorganic mercury compounds are seen mainly in the kidney in both humans and laboratory animals following short-term and long-term exposure. In rats, effects include increased absolute and relative kidney weights, tubular necrosis, proteinuria and hypoalbuminaemia. In humans, acute oral poisoning results primarily in haemorrhagic gastritis and colitis; the ultimate damage is to the kidney. The overall weight of evidence is that mercury(II) chloride has the potential to increase the incidence of some benign tumours at sites where tissue damage is apparent and that it possesses weak genotoxic activity but does not cause point mutations.

Methoxychlor

Methoxychlor (CAS No. 72-43-5) is an insecticide used on vegetables, fruit, trees, fodder and farm animals. It is poorly soluble in water and highly immobile in most agricultural soils. Under normal conditions of use, methoxychlor does not seem to be of environmental concern. Daily intake from food and air is expected to be below 1 μg per person. Environmental metabolites are formed preferentially under anaerobic rather than aerobic conditions and include mainly the dechlorinated and demethylated products. There is some potential for the accumulation of the parent compound and its metabolites in surface water sediments.

The genotoxic potential of methoxychlor appears to be negligible. In 1979, IARC assigned methoxychlor to Group 3. Subsequent data suggest a carcinogenic potential of methoxychlor for liver and testes in mice. This may be due to the hormonal activity of proestrogenic mammalian metabolites of methoxychlor and may therefore have a threshold. The study, however, was inadequate, because only one dose was used and because this dose may have been above the maximum tolerated dose. The database for studies on long-term, short-term and reproductive toxicity is inadequate. A teratology study in rabbits reported a systemic NOAEL of 5 mg/kg body weight per day, which is lower than the LOAELs and NOAELs from other studies. This NOAEL was therefore selected for use in the derivation of a TDI.

Methyl parathion

Methyl parathion (CAS No. 298-00-0) is a non-systemic insecticide and acaricide that is produced throughout the world and has been registered for use on many crops, in particular cotton. It partitions mainly to air and soil in the environment. There is virtually no movement through soil, and neither the parent compound nor its breakdown products will reach groundwater. By far the most important route for the environmental degradation of methyl parathion is microbial degradation. Half-lives of methyl parathion in water are in the order of weeks to months. Concentrations of methyl parathion in natural waters of agricultural areas in the USA ranged up to 0.46 μg/l, with highest levels in summer. The general population can come into contact with methyl parathion via air, water or food.

A NOAEL of 0.3 mg/kg body weight per day was derived from the combined results of several studies conducted in humans, based on the depression of erythrocyte and plasma cholinesterase activities. Methyl parathion decreased cholinesterase activities in long-term studies in mice and rats, but did not induce carcinogenic effects. Methyl parathion was mutagenic in bacteria, but there was no evidence of genotoxicity in a limited range of studies in mammalian systems.

A health-based value of 9 μg/l can be calculated for methyl parathion on the basis of an ADI of 0–0.003 mg/kg body weight, based on a NOAEL of 0.25 mg/kg body weight per day in a 2-year study in rats for retinal degeneration, sciatic nerve demyelination, reduced body weight, anaemia and decreased brain acetylcholinesterase activity, using an uncertainty factor of 100 for interspecies and intraspecies variation. As the toxicological end-points seen in experimental animals were other than acetylcholinesterase inhibition, it was considered more appropriate to use these data rather than the NOAEL derived for cholinesterase inhibition in humans.

Intake of methyl parathion from all sources is generally low and well below the upper limit of the ADI. As the health-based value is much higher than concentrations of methyl parathion likely to be found in drinking-water, the presence of methyl parathion in drinking-water under usual conditions is unlikely to represent a hazard to human health. For this reason, the establishment of a formal guideline value for methyl parathion is not deemed necessary.

Methyl tertiary-butyl ether

The major use of methyl tert-butyl ether, or MTBE, is as a gasoline additive. Surface water can be contaminated by gasoline spills; however, owing to the high volatility of MTBE, most is lost to evaporation. Spills and leaking storage tanks can cause more serious problems in groundwater, where MTBE is more persistent. MTBE has been detected in groundwater and drinking-water at concentrations in the nanogram to microgram per litre range.

No human cancer studies have been published for either the general population or occupationally exposed cohorts. There have been a number of human studies of neurological and clinical effects of exposure to MTBE by inhalation, with mixed results. In general, no objective changes could be seen at levels of MTBE normally found, even in such microenvironments as gasoline filling stations.

The weight of evidence suggests that MTBE is not genotoxic. A large number of studies using in vitro and in vivo mammalian and non-mammalian systems have been conducted to assess the mutagenicity of MTBE, almost all of which have produced negative results. These results suggest that the mechanism of action of MTBE is more likely to be non-genotoxic than genotoxic, although no one mechanism appears to explain all of the observed effects.

It has been concluded that MTBE should be considered a rodent carcinogen but that it is not genotoxic, and the carcinogenic response is evident only at high levels of exposure that also induce other adverse effects. The available data are therefore considered inconclusive and prohibit their use for human carcinogenic risk assessment. A health-based guideline value has not been derived for MTBE, owing to the fact that any guideline value that would be derived would be significantly higher than the concentration at which it would be detected by odour (15 μg/l is the lowest level eliciting a response in a study using taste- and odour-sensitive participants).

Metolachlor

Metolachlor (CAS No. 51218-45-2) is a selective pre-emergence herbicide used on a number of crops. It can be lost from the soil through biodegradation, photodegradation and volatilization. It is fairly mobile and under certain conditions can contaminate groundwater, but it is mostly found in surface water.

In a 1-year study in dogs, administration of metolachlor resulted in decreased kidney weight at the two highest dose levels. In 2-year studies with rodents fed metolachlor in the diet, the only toxicological effects observed in mice were decreased body weight gain and decreased survival in females at the highest dose level, whereas rats showed decreased body weight gain and food consumption at the highest dose level. There is no evidence from available studies that metolachlor is carcinogenic in mice. In rats, an increase in liver tumours in females as well as a few nasal tumours in males have been observed. Metolachlor is not genotoxic.

Molinate

Molinate (CAS No. 2212-67-1) is a herbicide used to control broad-leaved and grassy weeds in rice. The available data suggest that groundwater pollution by molinate is restricted to some rice growing regions. Data on the occurrence of molinate in the environment are limited. Molinate is of low persistence in water and soil, with a half life of about 5 days.

On the basis of the limited information available, molinate does not seem to be carcinogenic or mutagenic in experimental animals. Evidence suggests that impairment of the reproductive performance of the male rat represents the most sensitive indicator of molinate exposure. However, epidemiological data based on the examination of workers involved in molinate production do not indicate any effect on human fertility.

Molybdenum

Molybdenum is found naturally in soil and is used in the manufacture of special steels and in the production of tungsten and pigments, and molybdenum compounds are used as lubricant additives and in agriculture to prevent molybdenum deficiency in crops. Concentrations in drinking-water are usually less than 0.01 mg/l, although concentrations as high as 200 μg/l have been reported in areas near mining sites.

Molybdenum is considered to be an essential element, with an estimated daily requirement of 0.1–0.3 mg for adults.

As molybdenum occurs at very low concentrations in drinking-water, it is not considered necessary to set a formal guideline value. For guidance purposes, a health-based value can be derived.

In a 2-year study of humans exposed via drinking-water, the NOAEL was found to be 0.2 mg/l, but there are some concerns about the quality of this study. As molybdenum is an essential element, a factor of 3 is considered to be adequate to reflect intraspecies variation. This gives a health-based value of 0.07 mg/l (rounded figure), which is in the same range as that derived on the basis of the results of toxicological studies in experimental animals and is consistent with the essential daily requirement for molybdenum.

Monochloroacetic acid

Chlorinated acetic acids are formed from organic material during water chlorination.

No evidence of carcinogenicity of monochloroacetate was found in 2-year gavage bioassays with rats and mice. Monochloroacetate has given mixed results in a limited number of mutagenicity assays and has been negative for clastogenicity in genotoxicity studies. IARC has not classified the carcinogenicity of monochloroacetic acid.

Monochlorobenzene

Releases of monochlorobenzene (MCB) to the environment are thought to be mainly due to volatilization losses associated with its use as a solvent in pesticide formulations, as a degreasing agent and from other industrial applications. MCB has been detected in surface water, groundwater and drinking-water; mean concentrations were less than 1 μg/l in some potable water sources (maximum 5 μg/l) in Canada. The major source of human exposure is probably air.

MCB is of low acute toxicity. Oral exposure to high doses of MCB results in effects mainly on the liver, kidneys and haematopoietic system. There is limited evidence of carcinogenicity in male rats, with high doses increasing the occurrence of neoplastic nodules in the liver. The majority of evidence suggests that MCB is not mutagenic; although it binds to DNA in vivo, the level of binding is low.

A health-based value of 300 μg/l can be calculated for MCB on the basis of a TDI of 85.7 μg/kg body weight, based on neoplastic nodules identified in a 2-year rat study with dosing by gavage, and taking into consideration the limited evidence of carcinogenicity. However, because MCB occurs at concentrations well below those of health concern, it is not considered necessary to derive a formal guideline value. It should also be noted that the health-based value far exceeds the lowest reported taste and odour threshold for MCB in water.

MX

MX, which is the common name for 3-chloro-4-dichloromethyl-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone, is formed by the reaction of chlorine with complex organic matter in drinking-water. It has been identified in chlorinated humic acid solutions and drinking-water in Finland, the United Kingdom and the USA and was found to be present in 37 water sources at levels of 2–67 ng/l. Five drinking-water samples from different Japanese cities contained MX at concentrations ranging from less than 3 to 9 ng/l.

MX is a potent mutagen in bacteria and in cells in vitro and has undergone a lifetime study in rats in which some tumorigenic responses were observed. These data indicate that MX induces thyroid and bile duct tumours. IARC has classified MX in Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic to humans) on the basis of rat tumorigenicity and its strong mutagenicity.

A health-based value of 1.8 μg/l can be calculated for MX on the basis of the increase in cholangiomas and cholangiocarcinomas in female rats using the linearized multistage model (without a body surface area correction). However, this is significantly above the concentrations that would be found in drinking-water, and, in view of the analytical difficulties in measuring this compound at such low concentrations, it is considered unnecessary to propose a formal guideline value for MX in drinking-water.

Nickel

Nickel is used mainly in the production of stainless steel and nickel alloys. Food is the dominant source of nickel exposure in the non-smoking, non-occupationally exposed population; water is generally a minor contributor to the total daily oral intake. However, where there is heavy pollution, where there are areas in which nickel that occurs naturally in groundwater is mobilized or where there is use of certain types of kettles, of non-resistant material in wells or of water that has come into contact with nickel -or chromium-plated taps, the nickel contribution from water may be significant.

IARC concluded that inhaled nickel compounds are carcinogenic to humans (Group 1) and that metallic nickel is possibly carcinogenic (Group 2B). However, there is a lack of evidence of a carcinogenic risk from oral exposure to nickel. In a well-conducted two-generation reproductive study in rats administered nickel by gavage, a clear NOEL was observed for adult rats and their offspring for all the end-points studied, including integrity and performance of male and female reproductive systems, growth and development of offspring and post-implantation/perinatal lethality. Allergic contact dermatitis is the most prevalent effect of nickel in the general population.

Nitrate and nitrite¹

Nitrate (NO₃⁻) is found naturally in the environment and is an important plant nutrient. It is present at varying concentrations in all plants and is a part of the nitrogen cycle. Nitrite (NO₂⁻) is not usually present in significant concentrations except in a reducing environment, because nitrate is the more stable oxidation state. It can be formed by the microbial reduction of nitrate and in vivo by reduction from ingested nitrate. Nitrite can also be formed chemically in distribution pipes by Nitrosomonas bacteria during stagnation of nitrate-containing and oxygen-poor drinking-water in galvanized steel pipes, or if chloramination is used to provide a residual disinfectant. An excess of free ammonia entering the distribution system can lead to nitrification and the potential increase of nitrate and nitrite in drinking-water. Nitrate can reach both surface water and groundwater as a consequence of agricultural activity (including excess application of inorganic nitrogenous fertilizers and manures), from wastewater disposal and from oxidation of nitrogenous waste products in human and other animal excreta, including septic tanks. Nitrate can also occasionally reach groundwater as a consequence of natural vegetation. Surface water nitrate concentrations can change rapidly owing to surface runoff of fertilizer, uptake by phytoplankton and denitrification by bacteria, but groundwater concentrations generally show relatively slow changes. Nitrate and nitrite can also be produced as a result of nitrification in source water or distribution systems.

In general, the most important source of human exposure to nitrate and nitrite is through vegetables (nitrate and nitrite) and through meat in the diet (nitrite is used as a preservative in many cured meats). In some circumstances, however, drinking-water can make a significant contribution to nitrate and, occasionally, nitrite intake. In the case of bottle-fed infants, drinking-water can be the major external source of exposure to nitrate and nitrite.

Absorption of nitrate ingested from vegetables, meat or water is rapid and in excess of 90%; final excretion is in the urine. In humans, about 25% of ingested nitrate is recirculated in saliva, of which about 20% is converted to nitrite by the action of bacteria in the mouth. There is also endogenous formation of nitrate from nitric oxide and protein breakdown as part of normal metabolism. In normal healthy adults, this endogenous synthesis leads to the excretion of about 62 mg of nitrate ion per day in the urine. Endogenous formation of nitrate or nitrite can be significantly increased in the presence of infections, particularly gastrointestinal infections. When nitrate intake is low, endogenous formation may be the major source of nitrate in the body. Nitrate metabolism is different in humans and rats, as rats may not actively secrete nitrate in their saliva.

Nitrate probably has a role in protecting the gastrointestinal tract against a variety of gastrointestinal pathogens, as nitrous oxide and acidified nitrite have antibacterial properties. It may have other beneficial physiological roles. Hence, there may be a benefit from exogenous nitrate uptake, and there remains a need to balance the potential risks with the potential benefits.

Significant bacterial reduction of nitrate to nitrite does not normally take place in the stomach, except in individuals with low gastric acidity or with gastrointestinal infections. These may include individuals using antacids, particularly those that block acid secretion. In humans, methaemoglobinaemia is a consequence of the reaction of nitrite with haemoglobin in the red blood cells to form methaemoglobin, which binds oxygen tightly and does not release it, thus blocking oxygen transport. Although most absorbed nitrite is oxidized to nitrate in the blood, residual nitrite can react with haemoglobin. High levels of methaemoglobin (>10%) formation in infants can give rise to cyanosis, referred to as blue-baby syndrome. Although clinically significant methaemoglobinaemia can occur as a result of extremely high nitrate intake in adults and children, the most familiar situation is its occurrence in bottle-fed infants. This was considered to be primarily a consequence of high levels of nitrate in water, although there have been cases of methaemoglobinaemia in weaned infants, associated with high nitrate intake from vegetables. Bottle-fed infants are considered to be at greater risk because the intake of water in relation to body weight is high and, in infants, the development of repair enzymes is limited. In clinical epidemiological studies of methaemoglobinaemia and subclinical increases in methaemoglobin levels associated with drinking-water nitrate, 97% of cases occurred at concentrations in excess of 44.3 mg/l, with clinical symptoms associated with the higher concentrations. The affected individuals were almost exclusively under 3 months of age.

Although drinking-water nitrate may be an important risk factor for methaemoglobinaemia in bottle-fed infants, there is compelling evidence that the risk of methaemoglobinaemia is primarily increased in the presence of simultaneous gastrointestinal infections, which increase endogenous nitrite formation, may increase reduction of nitrate to nitrite and may also increase the intake of water in combatting dehydration. Cases have been described in which gastrointestinal infection seems to have been the primary cause of methaemoglobinaemia. Most cases of methaemoglobinaemia reported in the literature are associated with contaminated private wells (predominantly when the drinking-water is anaerobic) that also have a high probability of microbial contamination, which should not occur if it is properly disinfected.

Although numerous epidemiological studies have investigated the relationship between exposure to nitrate or nitrite in drinking-water and cancer occurrence, the weight of evidence does not support an association between cancer and exposure to nitrate or nitrite per se. Nitrite can react with nitrosatable compounds, primarily secondary amines, in the body to form N-nitroso compounds. A number of these are considered to be carcinogenic to humans, whereas others, such as N-nitrosoproline, are not. Several studies have been carried out on the formation of N-nitroso compounds in relation to nitrate intake in humans, but there is large variation in the intake of nitrosatable compounds and in gastric physiology. Higher mean levels of N-nitroso compounds, along with high nitrate levels, have been found in the gastric juice of individuals who are achlorhydric (i.e. have very low levels of hydrochloric acid in the stomach). However, other studies have been largely inconclusive, and there appears to be no clear relationship with drinking-water nitrate compared with overall nitrate intake in relation to formation of N-nitroso compounds. Moderate consumption of a number of dietary antioxidant components, such as ascorbic acid and green tea, appears to reduce endogenous N-nitrosamine formation.

A significant number of epidemiological studies have been carried out on the association of nitrate intake with primarily gastric cancers. Although the epidemiological data are considered to be inadequate to allow definitive conclusions to be drawn regarding all cancers, there is no convincing evidence of a causal association with any cancer site. The weight of evidence indicates that there is unlikely to be a causal association between gastric cancer and nitrate in drinking-water. This is consistent with the conclusion by IARC that ingested nitrate or nitrite under conditions that result in endogenous nitrosation is probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A), but not nitrate alone.

There have been suggestions that nitrate in drinking-water could be associated with congenital malformations, but the overall weight of evidence does not support this.

Nitrate appears to competitively inhibit iodine uptake, with the potential for an adverse effect on the thyroid. Current evidence also suggests that exposure to nitrate in drinking-water may alter human thyroid gland function by competitively inhibiting thyroidal iodide uptake, leading to altered thyroid hormone concentrations and functions. Although studies found that exposure to nitrate concentrations above 50 mg/l are weakly associated with altered thyroid function, the evidence is limited, conflicting and based on studies with important methodological limitations. Mode of action data suggest that pregnant women and infants are the most sensitive populations, owing primarily to the importance of adequate thyroid hormones for normal neurodevelopment in the fetus and infant, but also to increased thyroid hormone turnover and low intrathyroidal stores in fetal and early life.

There have been suggestions of an association between nitrate in drinking-water and the incidence of childhood diabetes mellitus. However, subsequent studies have not found a significant relationship, and no mechanism has been identified.

In some studies on rats treated with high doses of nitrite, a dose-related hypertrophy of the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal was seen; one strain of rats appeared to be more sensitive than others. However, this minimal hyperplasia was considered to be due to physiological adaptation to small fluctuations in blood pressure in response to high nitrite doses.

Nitrate is not carcinogenic in laboratory animals. Nitrite has been frequently studied, and there have been suggestions of carcinogenic activity, but only at very high doses. The most recent long-term studies have shown only equivocal evidence of carcinogenicity in the forestomach of female mice, but not in rats or male mice. In view of the lack of evidence for genotoxicity, this led to the conclusion that sodium nitrite was not carcinogenic in mice and rats. In addition, as humans do not possess a forestomach and the doses were high, the significance of these data for humans is very doubtful.

The guideline value for nitrate of 50 mg/l, as nitrate ion, is based on an absence of health effects (methaemoglobinaemia and thyroid effects) in epidemiological studies and is protective for bottle-fed infants and, consequently, other parts of the population. Methaemoglobinaemia is complicated by the presence of microbial contamination and subsequent gastrointestinal infection, which can increase the risk for this group significantly. Authorities should therefore be all the more vigilant that water to be used for bottle-fed infants is microbiologically safe when nitrate is present at concentrations near the guideline value. It is particularly important to ensure that these infants are not currently exhibiting symptoms of significant gastrointestinal infection (diarrhoea). Also, as excessive boiling of water to ensure microbiological safety can concentrate levels of nitrate in the water, care should be taken to ensure that water is heated only until it reaches a rolling boil. In extreme situations, alternative sources of water (e.g. bottled water) can be used.

The guideline for nitrite of 3 mg/l, as nitrite ion, is based on: 1) no incidence of methaemoglobinaemia at nitrate concentrations below 50 mg/l in drinking-water for bottle-fed infants less than 6 months of age (assuming body weight of 2 kg), 2) converting 50 mg/l nitrate to the corresponding molar concentration for nitrite, 3) multiplying by a factor of 0.1 to account for the estimated conversion rate of nitrate to nitrite in infants where nitrite is formed endogenously from nitrate at a rate of 5–10% and 4) multiplying by a source allocation factor for drinking water of 100% or 1, as a bottle-fed infant's primary exposure to nitrite is through consumption of formula reconstituted with nitrate- or nitrite-containing drinking-water. As the health-based value is based on the most sensitive subgroup of the population (bottle-fed infants less than 6 months of age), application of an uncertainty factor is not deemed necessary.

Because of the possibility of the simultaneous occurrence of nitrate and nitrite in drinking-water, the sum of the ratios of the concentration (C) of each to its guideline value (GV) should not exceed 1:

The guideline values are based on short-term effects; however, they are also considered protective for long-term effects.

Nitrilotriacetic acid

Nitrilotriacetic acid, or NTA, is used primarily in laundry detergents as a replacement for phosphates and in the treatment of boiler water to prevent accumulation of mineral scale.

NTA is not metabolized in experimental animals and is rapidly eliminated, although some may be briefly retained in bone. It is of low acute toxicity to experimental animals, but it has been shown to produce kidney tumours in rodents following long-term exposure to doses higher than those required to produce nephrotoxicity. IARC has placed NTA in Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic to humans). It is not genotoxic, and the reported induction of tumours is believed to be due to cytotoxicity resulting from the chelation of divalent cations such as zinc and calcium in the urinary tract, leading to the development of hyperplasia and subsequently neoplasia.

Nitrobenzene

Nitrobenzene is used primarily in the production of aniline, but it is also used as a solvent, as an ingredient of metal polishes and soaps and in the synthesis of other organic compounds, including acetaminophen. Nitrobenzene can be released to water during these production processes.

Concentrations of nitrobenzene in environmental samples, such as surface water, groundwater and air, are generally low, except in areas with industrial pollution. Based on limited data, it appears that the potential for contamination is greater for groundwater than for surface water.

The general population can be exposed to variable concentrations of nitrobenzene in air and possibly drinking-water. Only populations in the vicinity of manufacturing activities and petroleum refining plants are likely to have any significant exposure to nitrobenzene; however, people living in and around abandoned hazardous waste sites may also have potential for higher exposure, due to possible groundwater and soil contamination and uptake of nitrobenzene by plants.

Nitrobenzene is toxic to humans by the inhalation, dermal and oral routes of exposure. The main systemic effect associated with human exposure to nitrobenzene is methaemoglobinaemia. Although some recent studies have reported positive results in mutagenicity tests, it cannot be excluded that nitrobenzene is a non-genotoxic chemical. No long-term oral administration studies are available. Based on inhalation studies, IARC concluded that there was inadequate evidence in humans but sufficient evidence in experimental animals for the carcinogenicity of nitrobenzene and classified nitrobenzene in Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic to humans).

Because nitrobenzene occurrence in drinking-water at concentrations above trace levels is infrequent, it is not considered necessary to derive a formal guideline value. However, health-based values can be calculated to provide guidance in the event of spills and where there are higher concentrations in industrial areas. Two health-based values are derived based on the limited available information: one for short-term exposure (30 μg/l) and the other for long-term exposure (8–63 μg/l, depending on end-point and approach used). It should be emphasized that the derivation of the long-term health-based values includes large uncertainties because of the dose metric conversion from inhalation studies and the possibility of increased metabolism to aniline in the gastrointestinal tract.

It should be emphasized that nitrobenzene is a potent methaemoglobinaemic agent in humans, which is of particular concern for bottle-fed infants. Currently, data are not adequate to determine a separate health-based value for this end-point.

It should also be noted that the reported odour threshold for nitrobenzene in water is 30–110 μg/l.

N-Nitrosodimethylamine

N-Nitrosodimethylamine, or NDMA, can occur in drinking-water through the degradation of dimethylhydrazine (a component of rocket fuel) as well as from several other industrial processes. It is also a contaminant of certain pesticides. NDMA has recently been identified as a disinfection by-product of chloramination (by the reaction of monochloramine with dimethylamine, a ubiquitous component of waters affected by wastewater discharges) and, to some extent, chlorination. NDMA can also be formed as a by-product of anion exchange treatment of water.

There is conclusive evidence that NDMA is a potent carcinogen in experimental animals by several routes of exposure, including through ingestion of drinking-water. NDMA has been classified by IARC as probably carcinogenic to humans. The mechanism by which NDMA produces cancer is well understood to involve biotransformation by liver microsomal enzymes, generating the methyldiazonium ion. This reactive metabolite forms DNA adducts, with most evidence pointing to O⁶-methylguanine as the likely proximal carcinogenic agent. As a consequence of the clear evidence of carcinogenicity, there have been few studies of other possible toxicity end-points.

There is also ample evidence that NDMA is genotoxic both in vivo and in vitro. Activation by liver microsomal S9 fractions is necessary for a positive in vitro result. The recent observation that human S9 fractions are much more active in promoting genotoxicity in the Ames test than rat S9 fractions suggests that humans may be especially sensitive to the carcinogenicity of NDMA.

Although there have been several case–control studies and one cohort study of NDMA in humans, none of them can be used to derive a quantitative risk of cancer. The results are supportive of the assumption that NDMA consumption is positively associated with either gastric or colorectal cancer. However, none of the studies focused on drinking-water as the route of exposure; instead, they used estimations of total dietary intake of NDMA.

Parathion

Parathion (CAS No. 56-38-2) is a non-systemic insecticide that is used in many countries throughout the world. It is used as a fumigant and acaricide and as a pre-harvest soil and foliage treatment on a wide variety of crops, both outdoors and in greenhouses. Parathion released to the environment will adsorb strongly to the top layer of soil and is not likely to leach significantly. Parathion disappears from surface waters in about a week. The general population is not usually exposed to parathion from air or water. Parathion residues in food are the main source of exposure.

Parathion inhibits cholinesterase activity in all species tested. There has been no evidence of carcinogenicity in 2-year rat studies. JMPR concluded that parathion is not genotoxic.

A health-based value of 10 μg/l can be calculated for parathion on the basis of an ADI of 0–0.004 mg/kg body weight based on a NOAEL of 0.4 mg/kg body weight per day in a 2-year study in rats for retinal atrophy and inhibition of brain acetylcholinesterase at the next higher dose, and using an uncertainty factor of 100 for interspecies and intraspecies variation. Lower NOAELs in experimental animals, based only on inhibition of erythrocyte or brain acetylcholinesterase, were not considered relevant because of the availability of a NOAEL for erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase inhibition in humans, which was 0.1 mg/kg body weight per day.

Intake of parathion from all sources is generally low and well below the upper limit of the ADI. As the health-based value is much higher than concentrations of parathion likely to be found in drinking-water, the presence of parathion in drinking-water under usual conditions is unlikely to represent a hazard to human health. For this reason, the establishment of a formal guideline value for parathion is not deemed necessary.

Pendimethalin

Pendimethalin (CAS No. 40487-42-1) is a pre-emergence herbicide that is fairly immobile and persistent in soil. It is used in large amounts in Japan (5000 tonnes per year). It is lost through photodegradation, biodegradation and volatilization. The leaching potential of pendimethalin appears to be very low, but little is known about its more polar degradation products.

In a short-term dietary study in rats, a variety of indications of hepatotoxicity as well as increased kidney weights in males were observed at the highest dose level. In a long-term dietary study, some toxic effects (hyperglycaemia in the mouse and hepatotoxicity in the rat) were present even at the lowest dose level. On the basis of available data, pendimethalin does not appear to have significant mutagenic activity. Long-term studies in mice and rats have not provided evidence of carcinogenicity; however, these studies have some important methodological limitations.

Pentachlorophenol

Pentachlorophenol (CAS No. 87-86-5), or PCP, and other chlorophenols are used primarily for protecting wood from fungal growth. Food is usually the major source of exposure to PCP unless there is a specific local contamination of drinking-water by PCP or exposure from log homes treated with PCP.

IARC classified PCP in Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic to humans) on the basis of inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in humans but sufficient evidence in experimental animals. There is suggestive, although inconclusive, evidence of the carcinogenicity of PCP from epidemiological studies of populations exposed to mixtures that include PCP. Conclusive evidence of carcinogenicity has been obtained in one animal species (mice). Although there are notable variations in metabolism between experimental animals and humans, it was considered prudent to treat PCP as a potential carcinogen.

Perchlorate

Perchlorate is a naturally occurring anion that is frequently detected in the environment. It is used primarily as an oxidizer for solid rocket fuels, automotive airbags, fireworks and road flares. Perchlorate is found in water due to contamination from perchlorate manufacturing or use, natural deposits of perchlorate, use of fertilizers containing natural deposits of perchlorate, and natural formation of perchlorate in the atmosphere and its deposition during rain or snow events. It also forms in hypochlorite solutions to varying degrees, depending on the hypochlorite concentration, age and storage conditions.

The primary effect of perchlorate is its ability to competitively inhibit uptake of iodide by the thyroid gland. Inhibition of iodide uptake by perchlorate reduces the amount of iodide available for the synthesis of thyroid hormones. Sustained reduction in iodide uptake by the thyroid may result in hypothyroidism, which has adverse implications for structural and functional brain development in the fetus, infant and child, and for metabolism and the functioning of the cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, skeletal, neuromuscular and reproductive systems in adults. As the rat is not a good model for humans for substances known to affect the thyroid and having a mode of action involving inhibition of the uptake of iodide, the guideline value was derived from human studies.

Petroleum products

Petroleum products are used in large quantities, primarily as fuels. They are complex mixtures of chemicals derived from crude oil by distillation and fractionation. They consist primarily of a wide range of aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, many of which are of extremely low solubility in water. Petroleum products are widely stored and handled and are often spilt. The primary concern for drinking-water is the potential for spills into source water, penetration of distribution systems and contamination of drinking-water treatment works.

Exposure to the constituents of petroleum products through drinking-water is frequently short term, as the result of an accidental spill or short-term incident. Such incidents may lead to high concentrations of total petroleum hydrocarbons. However, a number of the most soluble aromatic hydrocarbons will be detectable by taste or odour at concentrations below those concentrations of concern for health, particularly for short-term exposure. Substances such as the alkyl benzenes and the alkyl naphthalenes have taste and odour thresholds of a few micrograms per litre. In view of the above, it is not considered appropriate to set a formal health-based guideline value for petroleum products in drinking-water.

In the event of a spill, it may be necessary to carry out a context-specific assessment of the risk to health. The fact that petroleum products are complex mixtures of many individual hydrocarbons is a complicating factor in determining the potential risks to consumers. The traditional approach of evaluating individual chemicals in assessing the risks from drinking-water is therefore largely inappropriate. In order to overcome this difficulty, it is more practical to consider a series of hydrocarbon fractions and to determine appropriate tolerable concentrations for those fractions. The most widely accepted approach is that developed by the Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons Criteria Working Group in the USA, which divided total petroleum hydrocarbons into a series of aliphatic and aromatic fractions based on the number of carbon atoms and the boiling point, to give equivalent carbon numbers.

This pragmatic approach provides a suitable basis for assessing the potential health risks associated with larger-scale contamination of drinking-water by petroleum products. The allocation of 10% of each of the reference doses, equivalent to TDIs, for the various fractions to drinking-water provides a conservative assessment of the risks. Although the approach is based on the analysis of hydrocarbon fractions, most are of low solubility, and the most soluble fractions, consisting largely of lower molecular weight aromatic hydrocarbons, will be present in the greatest concentration.

pH

No health-based guideline value is proposed for pH. Although pH usually has no direct impact on consumers, it is one of the most important operational water quality parameters (see chapter 10).

2-Phenylphenol and its sodium salt

2-Phenylphenol (CAS No. 90-43-7) is used as a disinfectant, bactericide and virucide. In agriculture, it is used in disinfecting fruits, vegetables and eggs. It is also used as a general surface disinfectant in hospitals, nursing homes, veterinary hospitals, poultry farms, dairy farms, commercial laundries, barbershops and food processing plants. 2-Phenylphenol is readily degraded in surface waters, with a half-life of about 1 week in river water.

2-Phenylphenol has been determined to be of low toxicity. Both 2-phenylphenol and its sodium salt are carcinogenic in male rats, and 2-phenylphenol is carcinogenic in male mice. However, urinary bladder tumours observed in male rats and liver tumours observed in male mice exposed to 2-phenylphenol appear to be threshold phenomena that are species and sex specific. JMPR concluded that 2-phenylphenol is unlikely to represent a carcinogenic risk to humans. Although a working group convened by IARC classified 2-phenylphenol, sodium salt, in Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic to humans) and 2-phenylphenol in Group 3 (not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans), JMPR noted that the IARC classification is based on hazard identification, not risk assessment, and is furthermore limited to published literature, excluding unpublished studies on toxicity and carcinogenicity. JMPR also concluded that there are unresolved questions about the genotoxic potential of 2-phenylphenol.

A health-based value of 1 mg/l can be calculated for 2-phenylphenol on the basis of an ADI of 0–0.4 mg/kg body weight, based on a NOAEL of 39 mg/kg body weight per day in a 2-year toxicity study on the basis of decreased body weight gain and hyperplasia of the urinary bladder and carcinogenicity of the urinary bladder in male rats, using an uncertainty factor of 100 for interspecies and intraspecies variation. Because of its low toxicity, however, the health-based value derived for 2-phenyl-phenol is much higher than concentrations of 2-phenylphenol likely to be found in drinking-water. Under usual conditions, therefore, the presence of 2-phenylphenol in drinking-water is unlikely to represent a hazard to human health. For this reason, the establishment of a formal guideline value for 2-phenylphenol is not deemed necessary.

Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons

Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, or PAHs, form a class of diverse organic compounds each containing two or more fused aromatic rings of carbon and hydrogen atoms. Most PAHs enter the environment via the atmosphere from a variety of combustion processes and pyrolysis sources. Owing to their low solubility and high affinity for particulate matter, they are not usually found in water in notable concentrations. The main source of PAH contamination in drinking-water is usually the coal tar coating of drinking-water distribution pipes, used to protect the pipes from corrosion. Fluoranthene is the most commonly detected PAH in drinking-water and is associated primarily with coal tar linings of cast iron or ductile iron distribution pipes. PAHs have been detected in a variety of foods as a result of the deposition of airborne PAHs and in fish from contaminated waters. PAHs are also formed during some methods of food preparation, such as char-broiling, grilling, roasting, frying or baking. For the general population, the major routes of exposure to PAHs are from food and ambient and indoor air. The use of open fires for heating and cooking, which is common especially in developing countries, may increase PAH exposure. Where there are elevated levels of contamination by coal tar coatings of water pipes, PAH intake from drinking-water could equal or even exceed that from food.

Evidence that mixtures of PAHs are carcinogenic to humans comes primarily from occupational studies of workers following inhalation and dermal exposure. No data are available for humans for the oral route of exposure. There are few data on the oral toxicity of PAHs other than benzo[a]pyrene, particularly in drinking-water. Relative potencies of carcinogenic PAHs have been determined by comparison of data from dermal and other studies. The order of potencies is consistent, and this scheme therefore provides a useful indicator of PAH potency relative to that of benzo[a]pyrene.

A health-based value of 4 μg/l can be calculated for fluoranthene on the basis of a NOAEL of 125 mg/kg body weight per day for increased serum glutamate–pyruvate transaminase levels, kidney and liver pathology, and clinical and haematological changes in a 13-week oral gavage study in mice, using an uncertainty factor of 10 000 (100 for interspecies and intraspecies variation, 10 for the use of a subchronic study and inadequate database and 10 because of clear evidence of co-carcinogenicity with benzo[a]pyrene in mouse skin painting studies). However, this health-based value is significantly above the concentrations normally found in drinking-water. Under usual conditions, therefore, the presence of fluoranthene in drinking-water does not represent a hazard to human health. For this reason, the establishment of a formal guideline value for fluoranthene is not deemed necessary.

Potassium

Potassium is an essential element in humans and is seldom, if ever, found in drinking-water at levels that could be a concern for healthy humans. The recommended daily requirement is greater than 3000 mg. Potassium occurs widely in the environment, including all natural waters. It can also occur in drinking-water as a consequence of the use of potassium permanganate as an oxidant in water treatment. In some countries, potassium chloride is being used in ion exchange for household water softening in place of, or mixed with, sodium chloride, so potassium ions would exchange with calcium and magnesium ions. Possible replacement or partial replacement of sodium salts with potassium salts for conditioning desalinated water has been suggested. The latter seems to be an unlikely development at this stage, in view of the cost difference.

Currently, there is no evidence that potassium levels in municipally treated drinking-water, even water treated with potassium permanganate, are likely to pose any risk for the health of consumers. It is not considered necessary to establish a health-based guideline value for potassium in drinking-water.

Although potassium may cause some health effects in susceptible individuals, potassium intake from drinking-water is well below the level at which adverse health effects may occur. Health concerns would be related to the consumption of drinking-water treated by potassium-based water treatment (principally potassium chloride for regeneration of ion exchange water softeners), affecting only individuals in high-risk groups (i.e. individuals with kidney dysfunction or other diseases, such as heart disease, coronary artery disease, hypertension, diabetes, adrenal insufficiency, pre-existing hyperkalaemia; people taking medications that interfere with normal potassium-dependent functions in the body; and older individuals or infants). It is recommended that susceptible individuals seek medical advice to determine whether they should avoid the consumption of water (for drinking or cooking) treated by water softeners using potassium chloride.

When high-risk individuals have been advised by a physician to avoid elevated potassium intake from water, the recommended strategy is to limit the addition of potassium to water that will be ingested or to avoid ingesting such water. This can be done by having a proportion of the water bypass the softener altogether; this approach is recommended by several countries. Although technologies are available to remove potassium, they are generally more expensive and redundant when combined with the softening treatment.

Propanil

Propanil (CAS No. 709-98-8) is a contact post-emergence herbicide used to control broad-leaved and grassy weeds, mainly in rice. It is a mobile compound with affinity for the water compartment. Propanil is not, however, persistent, being easily transformed under natural conditions to several metabolites. Two of these metabolites, 3,4-dichloroaniline and 3,3′,4,4′-tetrachloroazobenzene, are more toxic and more persistent than the parent compound. Although used in a number of countries, propanil has only occasionally been detected in groundwater.

Although a health-based value for propanil can be derived, this has not been done, because propanil is readily transformed into metabolites that are more toxic. Therefore, a guideline value for the parent compound is considered inappropriate, and there are inadequate data on the metabolites to allow the derivation of guideline values for them. Authorities should consider the possible presence in water of more toxic environmental metabolites.

Selenium

Selenium is present in Earth's crust, often in association with sulfur-containing minerals. Selenium is an essential trace element, and foodstuffs such as cereals, meat and fish are the principal source of selenium for the general population. Levels in food also vary greatly according to geographical area of production. However, even in high-selenium areas, the relative contribution of selenium from drinking-water is likely to be small in comparison with that from locally produced food.

Selenium is an essential element for humans, and there are indications that selenium status may be marginal in many parts of the world, including western Europe. The potential for adverse effects from selenium deficiency appears to be dependent on a number of factors, including overall health and nutritional status. Very low selenium status in humans has been associated with a juvenile, multifocal myocarditis called Keshan disease and a chondrodystrophy called Kaschin-Beck disease. Several studies have also found blood selenium levels to be inversely associated with the prevalence of several types of cancer.

High intakes of selenium are also associated with a number of specific diseases and the potential for adverse effects, but, again, this seems to be strongly influenced by other factors. Symptoms in people with high urinary selenium levels included gastrointestinal disturbances, discoloration of the skin, decayed teeth, hair or nail loss, nail abnormalities and changes in peripheral nerves. Slight biochemical changes have also been observed. One case of selenium toxicity directly attributable to a water source (well water containing selenium at a concentration of 9 mg/l) has been reported. The average dietary intake that is associated with selenosis has been found to be in excess of 900 μg/day.

As selenium is an essential element, various national and international organizations have established recommended daily intakes of selenium. A joint FAO/WHO consultation recommended intakes of 6–21 μg of selenium per day for infants and children, according to age, 26 and 30 μg of selenium per day for adolescent females and males, respectively, and 26 and 35 μg of selenium per day for adult females and males, respectively.

Because of concern about the adverse effects resulting from exposure to excessive levels of selenium, various national and international organizations have established upper limits of exposure for selenium. FAO/WHO established an upper tolerable limit for selenium of 400 μg/day.

Silver

Silver occurs naturally, mainly in the form of its very insoluble and immobile oxides, sulfides and some salts. It has occasionally been found in groundwater, surface water and drinking-water at concentrations above 5 μg/l. Levels in drinking-water treated with silver for disinfection may be above 50 μg/l. Recent estimates of daily intake are about 7 μg per person.

Only a small percentage of silver is absorbed. Retention rates in humans and laboratory animals range between 0% and 10%.

The only obvious sign of silver overload is argyria, a condition in which skin and hair are heavily discoloured by silver in the tissues. An oral NOAEL for argyria in humans for a total lifetime intake of 10 g of silver was estimated on the basis of human case reports and long-term experiments with laboratory animals.

The low levels of silver in drinking-water, generally below 5 μg/l, are not relevant to human health with respect to argyria. In contrast, special situations exist where silver salts may be used to maintain the bacteriological quality of drinking-water. Higher levels of silver, up to 0.1 mg/l (this concentration gives a total dose over 70 years of half the human NOAEL of 10 g), could be tolerated in such cases without risk to health.

There are no adequate data with which to derive a health-based guideline value for silver in drinking-water.

Simazine

Simazine (CAS No. 122-34-9) is a pre-emergence herbicide used on a number of crops as well as in non-crop areas. It is fairly resistant to physical and chemical dissipation processes in the soil. It is persistent and mobile in the environment.

Simazine does not appear to be genotoxic in mammalian systems. Recent studies have shown an increase in mammary tumours in the female rat but no effects in the mouse. IARC has classified simazine in Group 3 (not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans).

Sodium

Sodium salts (e.g. sodium chloride) are found in virtually all food (the main source of daily exposure) and drinking-water. Although concentrations of sodium in potable water are typically less than 20 mg/l, they can greatly exceed this in some countries. The levels of sodium salts in air are normally low in relation to those in food or water. It should be noted that some water softeners can add significantly to the sodium content of drinking-water.

No firm conclusions can be drawn concerning the possible association between sodium in drinking-water and the occurrence of hypertension. Therefore, no health-based guideline value is proposed. However, concentrations in excess of 200 mg/l may give rise to unacceptable taste (see chapter 10).

Sodium dichloroisocyanurate

Sodium dichloroisocyanurate is the sodium salt of a chlorinated hydroxytriazine and is used as a source of free available chlorine, in the form of hypochlorous acid, for the disinfection of water. It is widely used as a stable source of chlorine for the disinfection of swimming pools and in the food industry. It is also used as a means of disinfecting drinking-water, primarily in emergencies, when it provides an easy-to-use source of free chlorine, and, more recently, as the form of chlorine for household point-of-use water treatment.

Studies of the toxicity of sodium cyanurate are appropriate for assessing the safety of sodium dichloroisocyanurate, because any residues of intact sodium dichloroisocyanurate in drinking-water would be rapidly converted to cyanuric acid on contact with saliva. Both sodium dichloroisocyanurate and sodium cyanurate have low acute oral toxicity. Sodium cyanurate does not induce any genotoxic, carcinogenic or teratogenic effects. The NOEL from which the guideline value was derived was based on multiple lesions of the urinary tract (calculi and hyperplasia, bleeding and inflammation of the bladder epithelium, dilated and inflamed ureters and renal tubular nephrosis) and cardiac lesions (acute myocarditis, necrosis and vascular mineralization) in male rats exposed at the next higher dose.

Styrene

Styrene, which is used primarily for the production of plastics and resins, is found in trace amounts in surface water, drinking-water and food. In industrial areas, exposure via air can result in intake of a few hundred micrograms per day. Smoking may increase daily exposure by up to 10-fold.

Following oral or inhalation exposure, styrene is rapidly absorbed and widely distributed in the body, with a preference for lipid depots. It is metabolized to the active intermediate styrene-7,8-oxide, which is conjugated with glutathione or further metabolized. Metabolites are rapidly and almost completely excreted in urine. Styrene has a low acute toxicity. In short-term toxicity studies in rats, impairment of glutathione transferase activity and reduced glutathione concentrations were observed. In in vitro tests, styrene has been shown to be mutagenic in the presence of metabolic activation only. In in vitro as well as in vivo studies, chromosomal aberrations have been observed, mostly at high doses of styrene. The reactive intermediate styrene-7,8-oxide is a direct-acting mutagen. In long-term studies, orally administered styrene increased the incidence of lung tumours in mice at high dose levels but had no carcinogenic effect in rats. Styrene-7,8-oxide was carcinogenic in rats after oral administration. IARC has classified styrene in Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic to humans). The available data suggest that the carcinogenicity of styrene is due to overloading of the detoxification mechanism for styrene-7,8-oxide (e.g. glutathione depletion).

Sulfate

Sulfates occur naturally in numerous minerals and are used commercially, principally in the chemical industry. They are discharged into water in industrial wastes and through atmospheric deposition; however, the highest levels usually occur in groundwater and are from natural sources. In general, the average daily intake of sulfate from drinking-water, air and food is approximately 500 mg, food being the major source. However, in areas with drinking-water supplies containing high levels of sulfate, drinking-water may constitute the principal source of intake.

The existing data do not identify a level of sulfate in drinking-water that is likely to cause adverse human health effects. The data from a liquid diet study with piglets and from tap water studies with human volunteers indicate a laxative effect at concentrations of 1000–1200 mg/l, but no increase in diarrhoea, dehydration or weight loss.

No health-based guideline is proposed for sulfate. However, because of the gastrointestinal effects resulting from ingestion of drinking-water containing high sulfate levels, it is recommended that health authorities be notified of sources of drinking-water that contain sulfate concentrations in excess of 500 mg/l. The presence of sulfate in drinking-water may also cause noticeable taste (see chapter 10) and may contribute to the corrosion of distribution systems.

2,4,5-T

The half-lives for degradation of chlorophenoxy herbicides, including 2,4,5-T (CAS No. 93-76-5), also known as 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid, in the environment are in the order of several days. Chlorophenoxy herbicides are not often found in food.

Chlorophenoxy herbicides, as a group, have been classified in Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic to humans) by IARC. However, the available data from studies in exposed populations and experimental animals do not permit assessment of the carcinogenic potential to humans of any specific chlorophenoxy herbicide. Therefore, drinking-water guidelines for these compounds are based on a threshold approach for other toxic effects. The NOAEL for reproductive effects (reduced neonatal survival, decreased fertility, reduced relative liver weights and thymus weights in litters) of dioxin-free (< 0.03 μg/kg) 2,4,5-T in a three-generation reproduction study in rats is the same as the NOAEL for reduced body weight gain, increased liver and kidney weights and renal toxicity in a toxicity study in which rats were fed 2,4,5-T (practically free from dioxin contamination) in the diet for 2 years.

Terbuthylazine

Terbuthylazine (CAS No. 5915-41-3), or TBA, a herbicide that belongs to the chlorotriazine family, is used in both pre-emergence and post-emergence treatment of a variety of agricultural crops and in forestry. Degradation of TBA in natural water depends on the presence of sediments and biological activity.

There is no evidence that TBA is carcinogenic or mutagenic. In long-term dietary studies in rats, effects on red blood cell parameters in females, an increased incidence of non-neoplastic lesions in the liver, lung, thyroid and testis and a slight decrease in body weight gain were observed.

Tetrachloroethene

Tetrachloroethene has been used primarily as a solvent in dry cleaning industries and to a lesser extent as a degreasing solvent. It is widespread in the environment and is found in trace amounts in water, aquatic organisms, air, foodstuffs and human tissue. The highest environmental levels of tetrachloroethene are found in the commercial dry cleaning and metal degreasing industries. Emissions can sometimes lead to high concentrations in groundwater. Tetrachloroethene in anaerobic groundwater may degrade to more toxic compounds, including vinyl chloride.

At high concentrations, tetrachloroethene causes central nervous system depression. Lower concentrations of tetrachloroethene have been reported to damage the liver and the kidneys. IARC has classified tetrachloroethene in Group 2A (probably carcinogenic to humans). Tetrachloroethene has been reported to produce liver tumours in male and female mice, with some evidence of mononuclear cell leukaemia in male and female rats and kidney tumours in male rats. The overall evidence from studies conducted to assess the genotoxicity of tetrachloroethene, including induction of single-strand DNA breaks, mutation in germ cells and chromosomal aberrations in vitro and in vivo, indicates that tetrachloroethene is not genotoxic.

Toluene

Most toluene (in the form of benzene–toluene–ethylbenzene–xylene mixtures) is used in the blending of petrol. It is also used as a solvent and as a raw material in chemical production. The main exposure is via air. Exposure is increased by smoking and in traffic.

Toluene is absorbed completely from the gastrointestinal tract and rapidly distributed in the body, with a preference for adipose tissue. Toluene is rapidly metabolized and, following conjugation, excreted predominantly in urine. With occupational exposure to toluene by inhalation, impairment of the central nervous system and irritation of mucous membranes are observed. The acute oral toxicity is low. Toluene exerts embryotoxic and fetotoxic effects, but there is no clear evidence of teratogenic activity in laboratory animals and humans. In long-term inhalation studies in rats and mice, there is no evidence for carcinogenicity of toluene. Genotoxicity tests in vitro were negative, whereas in vivo assays showed conflicting results with respect to chromosomal aberrations. IARC has concluded that there is inadequate evidence for the carcinogenicity of toluene in both experimental animals and humans and classified it as Group 3 (not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans).

Total dissolved solids

Total dissolved solids (TDS) comprise inorganic salts (principally calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, bicarbonates, chlorides and sulfates) and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. TDS in drinking-water originates from natural sources, sewage, urban runoff and industrial wastewater. Salts used for road de-icing in some countries may also contribute to the TDS content of drinking-water. Concentrations of TDS in water vary considerably in different geological regions owing to differences in the solubilities of minerals.

Reliable data on possible health effects associated with the ingestion of TDS in drinking-water are not available, and no health-based guideline value is proposed. However, the presence of high levels of TDS in drinking-water may be objectionable to consumers (see chapter 10).

Trichloroacetic acid

Chlorinated acetic acids are formed from organic material during water chlorination.

Trichloroacetic acid has been shown to induce tumours in the liver of mice. It has given mixed results in in vitro assays for mutations and chromosomal aberrations and has been reported to cause chromosomal aberrations in in vivo studies. IARC has classified trichloroacetic acid in Group 3, not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans. The weight of evidence indicates that trichloroacetic acid is not a genotoxic carcinogen.

Trichlorobenzenes (total)

Releases of trichlorobenzenes (TCBs) into the environment occur through their manufacture and use as industrial chemicals, chemical intermediates and solvents. TCBs are found in drinking-water, but rarely at levels above 1 μg/l. General population exposure will primarily result from air and food.

The TCBs are of moderate acute toxicity. After short-term oral exposure, all three isomers show similar toxic effects, predominantly on the liver. Long-term toxicity and carcinogenicity studies via the oral route have not been carried out, but the data available suggest that all three isomers are non-genotoxic.

A health-based value of 20 μg/l can be calculated for total TCBs on the basis of a TDI of 7.7 μg/kg body weight, based on liver toxicity identified in a 13-week rat study, taking into consideration the short duration of the study. However, because TCBs occur at concentrations well below those of health concern, it is not considered necessary to derive a formal guideline value. It should be noted that the health-based value exceeds the lowest reported odour threshold in water.

1,1,1-Trichloroethane

1,1,1-Trichloroethane is widely used as a cleaning solvent for electrical equipment, as a solvent for adhesives, coatings and textile dyes and as a coolant and lubricant. It is found mainly in the atmosphere, although it is mobile in soils and readily migrates to groundwaters. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane has been found in only a small proportion of surface waters and groundwaters, usually at concentrations of less than 20 μg/l; higher concentrations (up to 150 μg/l) have been observed in a few instances. There appears to be increasing exposure to 1,1,1-trichloroethane from other sources.

1,1,1-Trichloroethane is rapidly absorbed from the lungs and gastrointestinal tract, but only small amounts—about 6% in humans and 3% in experimental animals—are metabolized. Exposure to high concentrations can lead to hepatic steatosis (fatty liver) in both humans and laboratory animals. In a well-conducted oral study in mice and rats, effects included reduced liver weight and changes in the kidney consistent with hyaline droplet neuropathy. IARC has placed 1,1,1-trichloroethane in Group 3. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane does not appear to be mutagenic.

A health-based value of 2 mg/l can be calculated for 1,1,1-trichloroethane on the basis of a TDI of 0.6 mg/kg body weight, based on changes in the kidney that were consistent with hyaline droplet nephropathy observed in a 13-week oral study in male rats, and taking into account the short duration of the study. However, because 1,1,1-trichloroethane occurs at concentrations well below those of health concern, it is not considered necessary to derive a formal guideline value.

Trichloroethene

Trichloroethene is used primarily in metal degreasing. It is emitted mainly to the atmosphere, but it may also be introduced into groundwater and, to a lesser extent, surface water in industrial effluents. Poor handling as well as improper disposal of trichloroethene in landfills have been the main causes of groundwater contamination. It is expected that exposure to trichloroethene from air will be greater than that from food or drinking-water, unless the drinking-water contains trichloroethene at levels above about 10 μg/l.