Introduction

The daily roles a manager fulfills within an organization are numerous and diverse. Although certain skills, such as emotional intelligence and communication, are innate for some managers, many, including staff management and oversight of personnel performance issues, must be learned. In this chapter, one of the most important roles of a manager is explored, the supervision and care of humans. As managers of human resources, we need to recruit, develop, and retain people with the knowledge and skills necessary to function at a level that will aid in achieving organizational goals (Jones et al. 2010a).

Recruitment

It is often said that a good manager is only as good as the team he or she builds. However, it is rare that an individual walks into a management role with a highly effective and functional team already in place, making it necessary to bring in new team members to complete or enhance an existing team. This makes the ability to recruit highly qualified applicants a valuable tool for any manager.

Recruiting staff can be a long and exhaustive process, and if a team is already understaffed and overwhelmed, the sense of urgency to accomplish this may be strong. According to a 2013 CareerBuilder survey, 66% of U.S. employers reported that bad hires lowered their company’s productivity, affected worker morale, and even resulted in legal issues. Although tempting, a manager should not rush into a hasty hiring decision in order to fill an empty staffing position. The more thoroughly candidates are vetted, the less likely they will be a poor match for the team. The right balance of job fit, personality, and experience is desired in staffing hires. Job fit is an approach that determines if an applicant’s strengths, needs, and experience match the requirements of a particular job and work environment (Heathfield 2015). An individual with an excellent skill set is not always the right fit for the position.

When considering candidates, the work site or facility “culture” fit is almost as important as the required experience level. This concept is often used to define the harmony of a work group, where finding the right fit and/or balance is essential. The resulting harmonious work group will have strong lines of communication, culminating in an efficient group of employees that meets the program’s goals. The right fit may be as simple as like-minded skill sets, work ethic, or interest in the same hobbies or beliefs. Some qualities, such as a soft-spoken demeanor or an outgoing personality, are simple to observe, while other, equally important qualities require a little more effort to discover. The balance between the required skill set, level of education, and type of personality are all important components in finding the right fit for vacant positions. The candidate with higher learning credentials and key words on their curriculum vitae (CV) or rÁ©sumÁ© is not necessarily the best cultural fit for the group. If the candidate possesses the essential job requirements, then a manager who is open-minded and a good listener can learn more about his or her disposition through effective dialogue.

Whether a position is open due to a vacancy or the addition of new head count, managers should invest some time in planning their recruitment strategy. Some of the more widely used recruitment methods include placing advertisements on industry-related national and local websites, in newsletters, on listservs, and on company Internet sites; publishing internal announcements; using personal referrals; and enlisting employment or executive recruitment agencies. Progressive managers may also use social and new recruitment media strategies to target the best candidates for their staffing needs. Managers may also need to adapt their recruitment strategies according to the level of the position. To attract more senior candidates, managers should tap into their own networks, as well as those of their employees, and might also consider using an executive search firm.

With the number of talented individuals in the field of laboratory animal care, a hiring manager must consider several factors when selecting a team member to join the organization. The importance of recruiting for and promoting workplace diversity is essential. According to many organizations, diversity is typically defined as valuing and accepting the differences among people with respect to age, class, gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and mental and physical capabilities (Murphy 2015). To aid in the recruitment of individuals from diverse backgrounds, the following suggestions should be considered:

• Develop specific strategies to increase the flow of applicants from a range of backgrounds. For example, advertise in a variety of publications, on Internet sites, at international job fairs, and at colleges and universities with a diverse student population.
• Establish internships to bring in individuals from a variety of backgrounds to enable interested individuals to gain on-the-job experience and skills.
• Promote the hiring of people from nontraditional backgrounds, and implement support systems for their transition to the team and workplace.
• Seek referrals from existing employees to find promising candidates within the organization or laboratory animal community (Wood 2015).

The larger the pool of applicants a manager can select from, the greater the likelihood that the best and right fit for the organization and team will be identified. It is additionally critical that a hiring manager utilizes the appropriate tools needed to sift through many applications to ensure applicants not only have the right experience and skill set, but also possess employment aspirations that are genuine. The recruiting process can include several phases, depending on the size and type of organization and the hiring manager’s preference. These may include an initial review of applications, easily eliminating those that do not meet the requirements outlined in the job description; telephone interviews to screen candidates’ genuine interest and salary expectations; and in-person interviews, potentially involving a first round with a larger pool of interviewers and then a final round with a small number of interviewers from within and outside of the department. Frequently, an institution’s human resources department (HRD) can assist a manager in initiating the recruiting process based on organizational procedures.

Once the position has been advertised and the applicant pool begins to grow, managers will sift through the cover letters, rÁ©sumÁ©s, and applications to identify those candidates that meet the qualifications of the position. Regardless of profession or job title, managers seek a rÁ©sumÁ© highlighting not only the candidate’s skills required to identify, anticipate, prevent, and solve the typical problems that arise daily in that position, but also the accomplishments related to previous efforts (Wood 2015). Therefore, managers should focus on applicants with experience, an understanding of the job’s deliverables, the tools to perform the job duties, and results-based achievements evident within their rÁ©sumÁ© or application. Candidates who do not qualify can be effectively eliminated from the applicant pool when these defined criteria are used as part of the selection process.

Following the initial review of applicants, most hiring managers will set up telephone interviews or Skype™ calls in order to conduct initial screens prior to arranging in-person interviews. Some typical screening questions are provided in Table 11.1 (Doyle 2015).

Table 11.1

Typical Screening Questions for Telephone Interviews.

These preliminary screening questions are just a small sampling of inquiries that can be made, particularly when individuals are new to the industry or have limited experience. It is equally important to take the time during the screening process to convey the nature of the work the position entails, particularly if the applicant has no prior experience in the field of laboratory animal science. Transparency about the less appealing responsibilities of the job, such as standing to perform cleaning and cage-changing tasks, wearing personal protective equipment, and handling soiled caging, is essential.

Once a manager has selected the top candidates (typically three to five at the most), the next step in the recruitment process is to initiate in-person interviews. Interviews should include key stakeholders who will interact regularly with the candidate (Gebelin et al. 2004). For example, when hiring a veterinary technician, an interview panel may include a veterinarian, facility supervisor, principal investigator, and peer veterinary technician. Depending on the level and complexity of the position, a manager can choose to either combine the stakeholders in teams for the interview or arrange one-on-one interactions tailoring the type of questions that may be asked. When coordinating the time allotted for the interview, the manager may schedule 1–2 hours depending on the number of stakeholders involved and the configuration of the interview sessions. Higher-level positions will require proportionally increased interview time and stakeholder numbers. For example, an interview for a veterinary technician may only last 2–4 hours, whereas the time needed to interview for a supervisor may extend to a full day. Another critical step is to coordinate interview questions to ensure the same questions are not repeated throughout the interview process. Questions should revolve around the job candidate’s personality, strengths, weaknesses, knowledge, skills, abilities, and talents that account for on-the-job performance. This type of questioning is called competency-based interviewing, and it is the most effective method used (Types of interviews 2015). This method is also referred to as targeted selection interviewing, used to evaluate candidates’ past performance and behaviors as predictors of future performance. Furthermore, the use of open-ended questions with this approach is most effective, such as

• Describe the best boss you have reported to.
• Describe motivations and frustrations on the job.
• Tell me about the toughest job-related decision you have ever made.

When using this approach, the candidate may talk about past lessons learned and reveal details about his or her personality, diplomacy skills, and ability to work as part of a team.

Providing an opportunity to tour the applicants through the work environment to give them a firsthand account of the type of work they will be expected to do is an effective approach to include in the interview process. Additionally, a manager may pair them with a seasoned staff member performing that job so they can speak informally about the advantages and challenges of working in that role. It is prudent to ensure that the staff member conducting the tour understands the ultimate goal of having a dependable coworker, and that he or she is representing the department and organization to a prospective employee. This exercise also helps to convey job expectations to a potentially overqualified applicant. Any method the hiring manager employs to ensure that candidates fully understand the job responsibilities will minimize the potential for employee turnover and failed recruitment efforts.

Once the candidate pool has been narrowed, the selection process becomes more difficult. A manager may be left with two to three ideal candidates warranting a second round of interviews with a different set of interviewers using a battery of more detailed inquiries about the applicant, his or her qualifications, and his or her ability to perform for the organization. During the second interview, discussion may ensue around such topics as terms of employment, working conditions, benefits, and pay. Managers should be prepared to field questions but avoid committing to specific terms relating to pay wages and benefits unless they have the approval to negotiate specific terms.

Once the interviews have been completed, the interview panel should provide their feedback directly to the hiring manager. Managers may find it beneficial to set up a meeting with the interview panel to assess the extent to which each candidate met their selection criteria; however, it is important to ensure interviewers are not swayed by others into changing their rankings and opinions. Ideally, the candidates will be ranked based on qualifications, ability to perform the job, and the responses from the targeted selection method of gathering past performance experiences. At this point, the manager typically transitions the hiring process to his or her HRD representative, who will make the actual job offer, to include the terms of employment, such as wages, benefits, background checks, and a mutually agreed upon start date. A best practice following receipt of the feedback on candidates should involve collecting and retaining notes from the interviews conducted. Most organizations require the retention of interview documents, as they are important in protecting the institution against an accusation of unfair hiring practices.

A critical part of the hiring process, and one that smaller institutions in particular may overlook, is a background check on the chosen candidate. Employers within the biomedical research community are vulnerable to individuals from animal extremist groups looking for opportunities to infiltrate organizations, potentially stealing, vandalizing, and misrepresenting research activities at the institution. It is highly recommended that hiring managers conduct searches using publicly available information available through Internet searches, social media, and professional association organizations. For example, does a candidate maintain local or national AALAS membership, which might serve as an indication of his or her commitment to the profession of laboratory animal science? Any background information gleaned from these various sources could be useful in determining if the applicant is ideal for a position involving highly sensitive responsibilities, such as caring for and working with research animals. It is worth the investment to use organizations that provide background and security checks for a fee.

Selection and Staff Onboarding

Once the preferred candidate has been identified, terms of employment agreed upon, and a successful background check completed, the hiring process is complete. The next step is to initiate the onboarding of the new staff member”“a process equally as important as recruitment. There are many functions (e.g., animal care, veterinary services, and business office administration) within laboratory animal care programs that require customized orientation and training. Managers are responsible for orientating new employees to the institution and the expectations of their new role. Even if an organization has a formal institution-wide onboarding program, the manager remains the most important person in the onboarding process (Vernon 2013). Table 11.2 contains typical activities that a manager may incorporate into the process of orientation and onboarding of the new employee (Purdue University 2015).

Table 11.2

Typical Onboarding Activities to Be Conducted by the Manager/Management Team.

When considering how to develop an onboarding strategy, there are three broad categories of information a new employee needs: general information for all employees about the organization, department-specific information, and job-specific information. While each manager may have a unique approach to new employee onboarding, it must be ensured that new employees have all the tools necessary to be successful productive members of the team.

Following the initial orientation and onboarding activities, managers should continue to focus their attention on

• Providing the appropriate balance of structure and independence to promote the success of new hires in their roles and responsibilities
• The use of coaching conversations to diffuse anxiety, establish responsibilities and expectations, and provide actionable feedback to guarantee skill development and achievement of performance goals
• Adapting best practices for managing a diverse workforce and personal work styles
• Providing appropriate opportunities for leadership whenever possible

Managers who appropriately structure new employees’ onboarding activities will convey to them that they are a priority to the organization. It is critical to welcome new employees, thus affirming their choice to join the organization, motivating them to continuously contribute to the success of the business, and exciting them with the prospects of a new job (Gebelin et al. 2004).

Retention

The recruitment of individuals with the desired skills and knowledge to be successful in their job is but the first step in staff management. An equal challenge is how to retain these individuals within the organization.

Regardless of the employee type or background, most individuals will look to their managers for opportunities to grow within the organization and further develop their knowledge, skills, and abilities in the field of animal care and use. Managers can assist staff by sharing a potential positions diagram (an example is shown in Figure 11.1), discussing how the person can prepare for different types of jobs in the field, and what qualifications may be required to qualify for the various opportunities. It is important to stress to employees that there are occasions where an employee has fulfilled all the qualifications for advancement, but a particular position within an organization is not available or an opportunity for promotion does not exist at that time.

Figure 11.1

(See color insert.) Example of a team that shares the responsibility to work closely together in programs of animal care and use around the world to ensure quality animal well-being and the responsible conduct of research, education, and testing with (more...)

Managers use coaching, motivation, performance reviews, and discipline to tailor employee efforts and contributions progressing toward achievement of individual performance and organizational goals. Before a manager can engage in any of the activities listed above, he or she must first have an understanding of the employee as an individual. This includes understanding the employee’s professional and personal goals, desires, and aspirations or lack thereof.

Managers serve as coaches by engaging with employees on a daily basis to enhance and strengthen their presence within an organization. Coaching is an informal process by which the manager provides insight, guidance, and encouragement to aid employees in performance improvement and goal attainment. In some circumstances, managers may also act as mentors for employees, although more commonly, mentors are not the employee’s direct supervisor. A mentor–protÁ©gÁ© relationship is one that typically develops between a high-ranking person with a great deal of experience and a junior person. The mentor may fulfill many roles for the protÁ©gÁ©, including that of role model, teacher, confidant, counselor, coach, and advisor. These functions fall into two main categories, career and psychosocial. In the career category, a mentor engages in activities such as coaching, sponsorship, providing exposure and visibility, challenging perceived limitations, and providing career and organizational advancement advice that help to enhance protÁ©gÁ© career progression. In the psychosocial category, mentors participate in interpersonal aspects that give the protÁ©gÁ© a sense of identity, competence, confidence, and effectiveness in personal as well as professional development. Whether coaching or mentoring, it is the function of the manager to provide support to help guide the employee to meet development goals and performance standards and, if desired, attain new heights in his or her career (Ragins and Cotton 1999).

Keeping employees motivated to perform at high levels can prove challenging, as motivation differs for each employee, frequently changes with personal circumstances, and is often dependent on the stage of the employee’s career. To help understand the source of motivation, the manager should first determine if the behaviors exhibited by the employee are either intrinsically or extrinsically motivated. Those that are intrinsic are evident when the employee derives a sense of accomplishment or satisfaction from completing assigned tasks or projects and helping the organization attain its goals. Comparatively, extrinsically motivated behavior is performed either to acquire something (e.g., recognition, bonus, or award) or avoid punishment (Jones et al. 2010c). There are many resources available to help guide managers in understanding what motivates their employees. A few of the major theories proposed that drive motivation are described below (Jones et al. 2010c):

• Expectancy theories, such as the one developed by Victor Vroom in the 1960s, state that if workers believe that high effort levels lead to high performance, which in turn leads to a desired outcome (e.g., bonus or promotion), then motivation will be high.
• Needs theories, such as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, focus on five basic needs that people must meet. In this theory, the lowest level of unmet need drives motivation. Needs starts with physiological demands (e.g., food, water, and shelter) and safety (e.g., security and stability), progresses to the need for belonging (e.g., friendship and love) and esteem (e.g., feeling good about oneself), and ends with self-actualization and the realization of one’s full potential.
• Equity theories are based on the employee’s perception that there is equity within an organization and the effort, skills, and knowledge that they contribute, as well as the outcomes they receive, are equal to those of their peers.

When offering feedback, managers assess and evaluate employee behaviors, contributions, and performance in comparison with set expectations and standards, in either a formal or informal manner (Jones et al. 2010a; Taylor 2015). Feedback is usually given at a set interval in the form of a performance review, but it may also occur at variable frequencies, including immediately at the completion of a task or project, at set intervals throughout the year, or annually. Feedback may be presented either formally or informally, depending on the situation. Depending on the institution, formal performance reviews may occur either semiannually or annually, while informal reviews occur as the manager deems necessary. The goal of feedback is to reshape or reinforce behaviors and strive for continuous improvement and development (Taylor 2015). Feedback is deemed to be effective if the following elements are met: specific, work related, nonpersonal, descriptive, timely, frequent, documentable, purposeful, nonprescriptive, constructive, balanced, occurring in an appropriate setting, and interactive (Jones et al. 2010a). As a manager, it is desirable not only to be able to give feedback, but also to seek and receive it from others for both employees’ and the manager’s own reviews.

In addition to providing feedback during performance reviews, managers also assess future programmatic needs and set goals for the employee to accomplish. A common acronym used when setting goals is SMART, where goals that are specific, measurable, attainable, realistic, and time-bound are made (Table 11.3). Goals may focus on attaining a certain level of performance, mastering a task, or demonstrating skills or knowledge (Doran 1981).

Table 11.3

SMART Criteria for Goal Setting.

Assessment of goals may be based on how the employee performs his or her job, performance results, and accomplishments. In addition, the skills, abilities, and personality characteristics that directly pertain to the job may be included in the review. Individual goals should be aligned with those of the institution and should give employees opportunities for growth and development. By setting SMART goals, the manager establishes concrete criteria against which to evaluate an employee’s performance. These criteria may then be used to provide objective information for decisions regarding raises, bonuses, and promotions, as well as to identify any gaps that may exist in knowledge or skills (Jones et al. 2010c). It is important to consider including feedback from others at the institution, such as peers, customers, subordinates, or often the employees themselves (e.g., self-assessment), as this may contribute to a more well-rounded and complete performance assessment.

Recognition, incentives, rewards, bonuses, and promotions are key aspects of motivation and performance-based reviews. While bonuses and promotions are self-explanatory, it is necessary to distinguish between other key motivational aspects based on subtle differences. Recognition can be an award, verbal praise, or public announcement to recognize an accomplishment made by an employee. Rewards are benefits given to an employee for an achievement, an effort made, or a service performed, the desirability of which is contingent on what the reward is, the value the employee places on the reward, how it is given, and how receiving an award is perceived socially. Incentives are something desired by the employee that he or she works toward attaining. This could be in the form of a bonus or reward. These are all approaches that may be employed by managers to help boost performance.

Issues with performance may arise for a plethora of reasons. Conflict is one type of performance problem that occurs often in the workplace and can arise due to a wide variety of reasons, including communication or interpersonal misunderstandings; discrepancy of opinions; clashes of opposing wishes, goals, wants, or needs; scarcity of resources; overlapping authority; feelings of unfairness or underappreciation; differing rewards or evaluation systems; perceived inconsistencies or inequalities; and job dissatisfaction (Jones et al. 2010c). Conflicts may occur at any level within an organization, between individuals, or within or between groups or teams. When approaching conflict, a manager should consider the following (Jones et al. 2010c):

• Identify the problem and focus only on the problem.
• Use peer mediation to let the involved parties solve the conflict themselves.
• Negotiation may be necessary with the use of mediators as facilitators or arbitrators to settle a dispute.
• Compromise is essential, and any sense of unfairness will perpetuate the situation.
• Encourage collaboration and cooperation.

Unresolved conflict is one of the many issues that frequently leads to disciplinary problems. When an employee requires discipline, first identify the problem and determine if the action or behavior was intentional or unintentional. Some behaviors or actions may be grounds for immediate dismissal from the institution. Behaviors that fall into this category are often outlined by the HRD during the employee orientation process. Dealing with disciplinary issues is often very uncomfortable for many managers. Table 11.4 describes considerations for managers when dealing with disciplinary issues.

Table 11.4

Approaches to Disciplinary Actions.

As a manager, your approach to discipline will greatly influence how the employee perceives the event. For employees, a sense of fairness ranks high on the scale of importance with regards to the outcome of a disciplinary event. Research shows that once the discipline has occurred, many employees only remember the negative aspect of the event, even if behaviors or actions change, while managers tend to focus on the positive outcomes. These perceptions often stem from the emotions of feeling reprimanded and the social stigma of peer awareness of the event. Discipline may also involve financial or legal ramifications, such as ineligibility for bonuses or performance-based increases, and may also include a final written warning leading up to dismissal (Atwater et al. 2007). It is imperative to ensure that there is written documentation of all disciplinary events; this documentation is essential for tracking recurring undesirable events that may progress to employee termination. It is important for a manager to keep records of all disciplinary action performed, whether informal or formal. A convenient method of documentation to employ for informal actions is for managers to send e-mails to themselves with event details, including conversations and actions taken. Informal records help the manager remember incidences that, while not egregious on their own, may be part of a larger problem. Should termination become necessary, these e-mail records will prove invaluable, avoiding vague recollections at a later date when attempting to recall specific events. In the event of a termination, it is advisable to seek guidance from the HRD to ensure that the dismissal is conducted in a legal manner.

Disciplinary action is a very sensitive area and often presents an emotionally charged situation. It is essential that managers not only are familiar with the institutional forms and processes, but also work in close consultation with the HRD. Confidentiality and consistency are of utmost importance both in the handling of the situation and during the documentation process.

Development

Employee development reduces costs due to decreased personnel turnover, thus yielding a larger return on employee investment. Organizational investment in an employee’s career improves morale, boosts productivity, and increases organizational efficiency (Jehanzebi and Bashiri 2013). Employee development comes in many forms and targets two overall areas. While these two areas sound similar and are often mistakenly used interchangeably, employee development (also referred to as staff development) and career development are distinctly different. Staff development typically refers to a company’s efforts to train and develop an employee for internal benefits. Career development is generally used to describe the efforts that an employee takes to learn new job skills to enhance current career opportunities or to enter a different field altogether. In order to understand the manager’s role in employee development and where the greatest impact lies for the organization, as well as the employee, it is important to understand the contrasts between staff and career development, as well as where these areas may overlap.

Staff development tends to focus on job-related skills that contribute directly to the function of the organization (Johnston 2015). To offer staff development, a manager must first identify operational areas where productivity or efficiency needs to be improved. A manager can then find or develop training programs to address specific skills that will immediately improve job performance. For example, if a manager identifies an employee with supervisory potential, he or she may recommend a management course offered either internally or externally. Alternatively, an employee may struggle when dealing with fellow staff that have varying opinions or with different personality types, making a workshop on conflict resolution an appropriate developmental training session to be recommended by the manager. These are just a couple of examples of staff development that can help an employee’s overall work performance.

The identification of learning and development needs, in addition to the implementation of staff development, is a shared responsibility between management and employees. The organization provides the policies and organizational directions that often set the stage for staff development. The manager aligns the development of the individual with the directions of the organization while encouraging individual staff members to be responsible for monitoring their own skill levels with regard to job requirements and development. An example of this can be seen when an organization institutes new core values and implements training initiatives in support of this effort. The manager works with staff to ensure that training is completed, staff understand how the change impacts the manner in which their daily work is carried out, and they are responsible for training compliance.

Career or professional development tends to focus on career-related skills, some of which may benefit the organization immediately and directly, while others contribute to the person’s professionalism and competency in more general terms. Professional development should be considered a benefit offered, much like health insurance. This benefit may not address training directly specific to job-related tasks, but it can help model personality and professionalism in an employee. For example, AALAS certification may not be required for a position, but once obtained, the employee has demonstrated not only competency for the job but also a professional commitment to the field. Industry certifications will also provide opportunities for the professional to relocate or gain employment within global organizations.

Professional development that seeks to provide broad instruction in relation to careers must focus on specific competencies that can actually improve performance within the organization. Using the example above, an individual’s status in the profession is enhanced once he or she is certified as an ALAT; however, by virtue of the knowledge required to attain the certification, the certification may actually improve the day-to-day work performance within the organization.

The responsibility for career development primarily resides with the employee, thus placing the manager in the role of facilitator and counselor. Employees should be actively involved in their own career planning by formulating career goals and developing a plan to reach those goals. Career planning requires a conscious effort on the part of the employee; specifically, it requires time, research, and effort. An employee should devote time to reflect on likes, dislikes, and how they pertain to the career of interest. This may even involve looking beyond an employee’s current job for transferable skills. Career planning is difficult work; it does not happen automatically. A major component of career planning involves setting short- and long-term career goals, which will assist in making the process more manageable as career plans progress or change. Furthermore, the manager can assist by providing encouragement and guidance to the employee, but the drive must come from within the individual (Byars and Rue 2006). Moreover, managers are also responsible for assisting staff with setting goals and identifying tools to help with career development. A manager can facilitate employee understanding of available career opportunities within the organization as they relate to employees’ abilities and interests. For example, a person might strongly desire to advance to the position of department manager until discovering that there is only one manager role in the department, and that this position requires advanced education and various certifications, such as CMAR. Most importantly, a manager must recognize that career planning or development is not something one person can do for another; it has to come from the individual. Only the individual knows what she or he really wants out of a career, and certainly these desires vary appreciably from person to person.

One of the most effective approaches for achieving career aspirations is for staff to share their career plans and goals with their manager to ensure that they are not only realistic, but also attainable. The creation of a timeline for this plan is equally important using incremental milestones and scheduled checkpoints to discuss progress. Plans and timelines often require adjustments, as unexpected work or life events impede progress.

In the laboratory animal care field, there are many opportunities for individuals to develop and advance their careers. Many institutions offer tuition reimbursement packages for those who wish to further their educational endeavors. Most opportunities for advancement to a manager or supervisor level require a degree in higher education, such as a bachelor’s or master’s degree in the sciences. In the past, it was difficult to attend college-level courses while working full-time. Today, alternative options exist for those interested in obtaining a master in laboratory animal science. One option includes “distance learning,” a term used to describe an education that is received at an off-site location, primarily with the use of computer-based programs developed for virtual teacher and student classroom interactions. Previously, students who participated in a distance learning program received their education through correspondence courses, but today’s technology makes many other options possible. Whether it is Drexel University, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Newcastle University, or the Institute of Animal Technology (IAT), accredited distance learning programs offer graduate-level courses, which can be taken through online courses anytime and anywhere in the world.

Institutions often require one of several industry-related certifications as a means to not only demonstrate a commitment to continued education in the field of laboratory animal science, but also serve as an authoritative endorsement of an individual’s level of knowledge and competency in laboratory animal technology. A global professional body in the field of animal technology founded in 1950, IAT in the United Kingdom offers continued education opportunities that encourage animal technologists to develop their knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Additionally, the AALAS-sponsored technician certification designations of ALAT, LAT, and LATG are well known and widely used throughout the varied fields of laboratory animal science. It is worth noting that these certifications begin at the entry level for a technician and provide for a natural progression as experiential skills are attained. Many institutions offer incentives for taking the certification exams, which include reimbursement of exam fees, provision of study materials or courses, employer-paid time to study, promotions, bonuses, or salary increases with successful completion of a certification exam. As a manager, it is important to emphasize the importance of these certifications, which are examples of where staff and career development overlap: employers may require AALAS certification for a particular job title, but the employee also benefits professionally from an industry perspective. Employees may also demonstrate their dedication to continuing education by maintaining their certification in the AALAS Registry, which requires submission of continued education units (CEUs) every 2 years to keep certification current and active.

Managers and supervisors also have the opportunity to further their own developmental endeavors through the AALAS-sponsored CMAR program, which is designed to increase competency and professionalism in the field of laboratory animal resources management. In addition to the CMAR program, AALAS offers the ILAM educational program. This program was originally established by LAMA and was adopted by AALAS as a cosponsor. ILAM was developed to provide instruction in management concepts applicable to the laboratory animal science field, as well as to enhance communication, team building, and networking among colleagues with mutual interests. Additionally, many organizations have internal courses, potentially as part of a management certificate program, which offer the basic components of people management, such as conflict resolution or diversity training, often including company-specific core values and behaviors. Managers are encouraged to take advantage of all the resources available to them within their organization, as well as those offered externally.

Workforce Diversity and Career Development

Career development is not uniform across a diverse workforce. Depending on an individual’s background, developmental needs can differ greatly, and an effective manager understands that one size does not fit all. Members of a diverse workforce identify by attributes such as culture, ethnicity, gender, race, religion, and multigenerational identification. Understanding differences between the generations is fundamental to building a successful multigenerational workplace. Each generation has particular needs that include specific preferences, expectations, beliefs, and work style. A brief description of each generation and their values and views toward development and career planning is included in Table 11.5 (Symonowicz and Straeter 2008).

Table 11.5

Generational Categories.

A key to effective management lies in understanding the types and attributes of these individuals. Much of this knowledge is founded in the understanding of the generation to which these individuals belong.

Another subset of a diverse workforce includes staff with special needs or disabilities. The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA 1990) was established to mandate ending discrimination in employment, as well as opening society to the disabled for most situations in everyday life (ADA 1990). Disability is defined as a physical or mental impairment, which substantially limits one or more major life activities (Suckow et al. 2001). These could include such activities as hearing, seeing, speaking, walking, performing manual tasks, caring for oneself, learning, or working. According to the ADA, people with disabilities must be qualified to perform the essential functions or duties of a job, with or without reasonable accommodation, in order to be protected from job discrimination. The individual must satisfy the employer’s requirements for the job, such as education, employment experience, skills, or licenses. The individual must also be able to perform the essential functions of the job with or without reasonable accommodation. “Reasonable accommodation” is any change or adjustment to a job or work environment that permits a qualified applicant or employee with a disability to participate in the job application process, to perform the essential functions of a job, or to enjoy benefits and privileges of employment equal to those enjoyed by employees without disabilities (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission 2015). For example, reasonable accommodation may include provision or modification of equipment or devices; restructuring of job tasks or responsibilities; modification of work schedules; reassignment to a vacant position; adjustment or modification of examinations, training materials, or policies; or provision of readers and interpreters to make the workplace readily accessible and usable by people with disabilities. Some of the activities mentioned above are critical to the essential job requirements, making reasonable accommodations unrealistic and difficult. In addition to the ADA, the U.S. Department of State addresses the global concerns around disabilities through the Special Advisor for International Disability Rights (SADR), which leads the U.S. comprehensive strategy to promote and protect the rights of persons with disabilities internationally. The United States, as part of the foreign policy, works to remove barriers and create a world in which disabled people enjoy dignity and full inclusion. Whether within country or outside, managers should make every effort to familiarize themselves with not only U.S. federal and state regulations, but also those rules and policies that may impact managing individuals with disabilities in a global environment.

An employer is required to provide a reasonable accommodation to a qualified applicant or employee with a disability unless the employer can show that the accommodation would create an undue hardship, requiring significant difficulty or expense. Managers and organizations can benefit greatly by the inclusion of these individuals in their workplace, potentially enriching the lives of those with special needs. Individualized training is emphasized and is a key factor in ensuring a successful integration of the individual into an organization (Weichbrod 2015).

A unionized or bargaining unit staff is another type of work group diversity that may require a different managerial approach, which should be in alignment with the collective bargaining agreements (CBAs) in place. Managing unionized staff can sometimes have additional challenges, particularly when it comes to hiring and recognition practices. However, regardless of the type of staff, managing with consistency, fairness, and respect will lead to a more successful work environment. Additionally, understanding and respecting the terms of the CBA or union contract is an important aspect of successful workforce management. Most agreements contain job descriptions that may or may not be detailed and specific, creating challenges to provide individualized developmental and career progression plans. For example, if a highly qualified and skilled union employee were to be given a leadership or growth opportunity that was not offered to other union employees, there is a possibility that the manager will be grieved by the union as a result of a violation to the CBA. However, there are many ways to create unique opportunities for the development of unionized staff. One example is through the use of self-directed work teams (SDWTs), which allows for staff autotomy and the ability to have control and input on work processes without compromising quality and workplace policies. SDWTs are one aspect of the self-managed approaches developed for unionized staff that has proved effective for Taco Bell^®, Walmart^®, and Costco^®, as well as a 3M™ manufacturing facility in the early 1990s. More specifically, an SDWT is a group of people, usually employees in a company, who combine different skills and talents to work toward a common purpose or goal without the usual managerial supervision (Williams 1995). In order for an SDWT to succeed, the company or organization must provide a meaningful mission statement to the team, empower the team to make important decisions, establish boundaries through the provision of rules and company policies, and train members in the skills and knowledge needed to accomplish their purpose. Similarly, a high-involvement workplace is another scenario where employees exercise control over daily tasks, cited as one of the most important work characteristics to produce happiness on the job (Reinhard 2015). High-involvement work teams improve productivity and job satisfaction by giving workers more autonomy and encouraging cooperative work efforts. With these tools, the team is held accountable for the success or failure of a project (Williams 1995). In both examples, work teams are focused on learning and continuous improvement. The team’s mandate is not just to get a job done, but to use competitive intelligence, market information, and internal statistics to find better ways to perform its job responsibilities (Reinhard 2015). To optimize the effectiveness of high-performance work teams, managers must focus on employee continuing education and career development.

Conclusion

In today’s competitive workplace, companies and institutions must offer more than a competitive salary to attract and retain excellent employees. Employee loyalty is at a reportedly all-time low, and individuals focus more on maintaining a portable skill set in order to move from opportunity to opportunity, rather than forging a long-term commitment to a company (K@W 2012). According to a 2011 Careerbuilder.com report (http://business.time.com/2012/05/11/declining-employee-loyalty-a-casualty-of-the-new-workplace/), 76% of full-time workers, while not actively looking for a new job, would leave their current workplace if the right opportunity came along. Other studies show that each year, the average company loses from 20% to 50% of its employee base. Following a MetLife study in 2011, the vice president of MetLife’s U.S. business made a profound statement: “Businesses are understandably focused on expenses, but they’re taking their eye off the ball with human capital issues, notably what drives employee satisfaction and loyalty” (Petrecca 2011). Given the current uncertain climate, managers are forced to learn motivational strategies to attract and retain the best workers at the risk of losing them to a competitor who has strong motivational retention strategies. Unlike previous generations, today’s generation of employees work for different reasons and look for different job-related experiences. Historically, a weekly paycheck served as a sufficient motivator, but now is only one in a myriad of factors that motivate employees. Some people desire a social connection with their colleagues, some work to fulfill their self-worth, and yet others work to move up the corporate ladder. Managers today need to do more than give the occasional pat on the back; they need to develop a dynamic and diverse workforce spanning several generations that requires a number of management tools to address individual staff characteristics, needs, and issues. It starts from the beginning, with recruiting the right team members, implementing the appropriate developmental plan for each individual, and demonstrating the desire to retain the talent. Although not all-inclusive, this chapter is designed to provide some of the important tools that will equip the manager for success. The field of human resources is not always born out of instinct, and managers are warned not to become overly confident in their skills, but instead to continually invest in their self-growth.

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