Excerpt

The current supplement to the American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene (AJTMH) is entitled “Defining and Defeating the Intolerable Burden of Malaria III. Progress and Perspectives.” It is the third volume of a series of AJTMH supplements aimed at shedding light on the scientific, technical, programmatic, and developmental issues related to the malaria burden and its decrease. This volume provides updates on the malaria situation, describes challenges facing the malaria control programs, and suggests new approaches and tools, which, if made available and accessible to the populations in need, would avert millions of deaths and save billions of dollars.

Contents

• Defining and Defeating the Intolerable Burden of Malaria III. Progress and Perspectives: Objectives and Acknowledgments
  Joel G. Breman, Martin S. Alilio, and Nicholas J. White.
• Defining and Defeating the Intolerable Burden of Malaria III. Progress and Perspectives: Foreword
  Luis Gomez Sambo.
• Defining and Defeating the Intolerable Burden of Malaria III. Progress and Perspectives: Introduction
  Roger I. Glass and Anthony S. Fauci.
• When Is “Malaria” Malaria? the Different Burdens of Malaria Infection, Malaria Disease, and Malaria-like Illnesses
  K. A. Koram and M. E. Molyneux.
  • Definitions
  • When Accurate Measurement Is Important
  • The Overdiagnosis of Malarial Illness
  • The Underdiagnosis of Malarial Illness
  • Malaria-Attributable Fractions and Threshold Parasite Densities
  • Clinical Algorithms
  • Malaria “Signatures”
  • Conclusions
  • References
• Over-Diagnosis and Co-Morbidity of Severe Malaria in African Children: A Guide for Clinicians
  Samson Gwer, Charles R.J.C. Newton, and James A. Berkley.
  • Introduction
  • Search Strategy
  • The Problems of Diagnosis
  • Over-Diagnosis of Severe Malaria
  • Severe Malaria and Invasive Bacterial Infections
  • Severe Malaria and HIV
  • Severe Malaria and Malnutrition
  • Conclusions
  • References
• Malaria in Pregnancy: Linking Immunity and Pathogenesis to Prevention
  Stephen J. Rogerson, Victor Mwapasa, and Steven R. Meshnick.
  • Introduction to Malaria in Pregnancy
  • Susceptibility to Malaria in Pregnancy
  • Other Malaria Vaccines
  • Malaria Prevention and Protective Immunity
  • Pre-Term Delivery and Fetal Growth Restriction
  • Maternal Nutrition and Malaria
  • Anemia: Etiology and Prevention
  • Malaria and the Neonate
  • Antimalarials in Pregnancy
  • Pharmacokinetics
  • Drug Resistance
  • Toxicity
  • Future Directions
  • Conclusions
  • References
• In-Hospital Morbidity and Mortality Due to Severe Malarial Anemia in Western Kenya
  Charles O. Obonyo, John Vulule, Willis S. Akhwale, and Diederick E. Grobbee.
  • Introduction
  • Materials and Methods
  • Results
  • Discussion
  • References
• The Management of Patients with Severe Malaria
  Nicholas Day and Arjen M. Dondorp.
  • Introduction
  • Initial Assessment and Management
  • Antimalarial Treatment
  • Supportive Care and Management of Complications
  • Other Adjunctive Therapies
  • Future Directions
  • References
• Malaria Surveillance Counts
  Joel G. Breman and Cherice N. Holloway.
  • Introduction
  • Current Goals, Indicators, and Data
  • Conundrums
  • What Should Be Done?
  • Morbidity and Mortality
  • Tracking Malaria Transmission and Control
  • Resistance of Parasites to Drugs and Mosquitoes to Insecticides
  • Conclusion
  • References
• Predictions of the Impact of Malaria Control Efforts on All-Cause Child Mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa
  Alexander K. Rowe and Richard W. Steketee.
  • Introduction
  • Methods
  • Results
  • Discussion
  • Conclusions
  • References
• Malaria Burden among Pregnant Women Living in the Rural District of Boromo, Burkina Faso
  Sheick Oumar Coulibaly, Sabine Gies, and Umberto D’Alessandro.
  • Introduction
  • Methods
  • Results
  • Discussion
  • References
• Malaria Stratification, Climate, and Epidemic Early Warning in Eritrea
  Pietro Ceccato, Tewolde Ghebremeskel, Malanding Jaiteh, Patricia M. Graves, Marc Levy, Shashu Ghebreselassie, Andom Ogbamariam, Anthony G. Barnston, Michael Bell, John del Corral, Stephen J. Connor, Issac Fesseha, Eugene P. Brantly, and Madeleine C. Thomson.
  • Introduction
  • Methods
  • Results
  • Discussion
  • References
• Burden of Malaria in India: Retrospective and Prospective View
  Ashwani Kumar, Neena Valecha, Tanu Jain, and Aditya P. Dash.
  • Introduction
  • Discussion
  • References
• Vivax Malaria: Neglected and Not Benign
  Ric N. Price, Emiliana Tjitra, Carlos A. Guerra, Shunmay Yeung, Nicholas J. White, and Nicholas M. Anstey.
  • Introduction
  • Epidemiology
  • Pathobiology
  • Clinical Manifestations
  • Mixed Infections
  • Socio-Economic Burden
  • Diagnosis and Management of Vivax Malaria
  • Chloroquine Resistance (CQR)
  • Management of Resistant P. Vivax.
  • Control of Vivax Malaria
  • References
• Epidemiology of Plasmodium-Helminth Co-Infection in Africa: Populations at Risk, Potential Impact on Anemia, and Prospects for Combining Control
  Simon Brooker, Willis Akhwale, Rachel Pullan, Benson Estambale, Siân E. Clarke, Robert W. Snow, and Peter J. Hotez.
  • Introduction
  • Predicted Patterns of Co-Distribution
  • Epidemiology of Co-Infection
  • Immune Consequences of Co-Infection
  • Impact of Co-Infection on Anemia
  • Combined Control
  • Proposed Research Agenda
  • Conclusions
  • References
• Patterns of Age-Specific Mortality in Children in Endemic Areas of Sub-Saharan Africa
  Salim Abdullah, Kubaje Adazu, Honorati Masanja, Diadier Diallo, Abraham Hodgson, Edith Ilboudo-Sanogo, Ariel Nhacolo, Seth Owusu-Agyei, Ricardo Thompson, Thomas Smith, and Fred N. Binka.
  • Introduction
  • Methods
  • Results
  • Discussion
  • References
• Priority Setting on Malaria Interventions in Tanzania: Strategies and Challenges to Mitigate against the Intolerable Burden
  Emmanuel A. Makundi, Leonard E. G. Mboera, Hamisi M. Malebo, and Andrew Y. Kitua.
  • Background Information
  • Malaria Control Strategies in Tanzania
  • Measuring the Burden of Malaria
  • Priority Areas in Addressing the Burden of Malaria in Tanzania
  • Challenges
  • Way Forward: Revisit Implementation of Existing Measures
  • Conclusions
  • References
• Uncertainty in Malaria Control in Tanzania: Crossroads and Challenges for Future Interventions
  Leonard E. G. Mboera, Emmanuel A. Makundi, and Andrew Y. Kitua.
  • Introduction
  • Strategies for Malaria Control in Tanzania
  • Challenges to the Current Malaria Control Strategies
  • Conclusion
  • References
• A Review of Malaria Diagnostic Tools: Microscopy and Rapid Diagnostic Test (RDT)
  Chansuda Wongsrichanalai, Mazie J. Barcus, Sinuon Muth, Awalludin Sutamihardja, and Walther H. Wernsdorfer.
  • Introduction
  • Malaria Diagnostic Methods
  • Conclusions
  • References
• The Cost-Effectiveness of Parasitologic Diagnosis for Malaria-Suspected Patients in an Era of Combination Therapy
  Yoel Lubell, Hugh Reyburn, Hilda Mbakilwa, Rose Mwangi, Kini Chonya, Christopher J. M. Whitty, and Anne Mills.
  • Introduction
  • Materials and Methods
  • Results
  • Discussion
  • References
• Estimating Trends in the Burden of Malaria at Country Level
  Richard E. Cibulskis, David Bell, Eva-Maria Christophel, Jeffrey Hii, Charles Delacollette, Nathan Bakyaita, and Maru W. Aregawi.
  • Why Are Country and Sub-National Level Estimates of Malaria Burden Needed?
  • Countries Experience Difficulties in Quantifying Burden: Why?
  • How Can We Use and Improve Available Information in Countries?
  • How Can We Gather Better Information in the Future?
  • Conclusion
  • References
• Scaling up Malaria Control in Africa: An Economic and Epidemiological Assessment
  Awash Teklehaimanot, Gordon C. McCord, and Jeffrey D. Sachs.
  • Introduction
  • Derivation of Population at Risk
  • Description of Comprehensive Interventions
  • Scaling up to Full Coverage in 2008
  • Conclusion
  • References
• How Many Years of Life Could Be Saved If Malaria Were Eliminated from a Hyperendemic Area of Northern Ghana?
  Ayaga A. Bawah and Fred N. Binka.
  • Introduction
  • Data
  • Estimation Procedure
  • Data Limitations
  • Results
  • Discussion
  • References
  • Appendix 1
• Responding to the Challenge of Antimalarial Drug Resistance by Routine Monitoring to Update National Malaria Treatment Policies
  Lasse S. Vestergaard and Pascal Ringwald.
  • Introduction
  • Malaria Treatment Failure and Drug Resistance
  • Summary of the Epidemiology of Drug-Resistant Malaria
  • Tools for Monitoring
  • Coordinated Monitoring at National and Regional Level
  • Updating National Malaria Treatment Policies
  • Future Challenges
  • References
• Monitoring and Deterring Drug-Resistant Malaria in the Era of Combination Therapy
  Miriam K. Laufer, Abdoulaye A. Djimdé, and Christopher V. Plowe.
  • Introduction
  • In vitro Susceptibility Assessment
  • Molecular Markers for Drug Resistance
  • Pharmacokinetics
  • Clinical Assessment of Drug Efficacy
  • Summary
  • References
• Intensity of Malaria Transmission and the Spread of Plasmodium falciparum–Resistant Malaria: A Review of Epidemiologic Field Evidence
  Ambrose O. Talisuna, Paul E. Okello, Annette Erhart, Marc Coosemans, and Umberto D’Alessandro.
  • Introduction
  • Materials and Methods
  • Results
  • Discussion
  • References
• Artemisinin-Based Combination Treatment of Falciparum Malaria
  François Nosten and Nicholas J. White.
  • Introduction
  • Rationale
  • Deployment
  • Access
  • Pharmacology
  • Adverse Effects
  • The ACTs
  • Artesunate–Sulfadoxine–Pyrimethamine
  • Artesunate–Amodiaquine
  • Artemether–Lumefantrine
  • Artesunate–Mefloquine
  • Artesunate–Chlorproguanil–Dapsone
  • Artesunate–Atovaquone–Proguanil
  • Artesunate–Pyronaridine
  • Dihydroartemisinin–Piperaquine
  • ACTs in Children
  • ACTs in Pregnancy
  • Plasmodium Vivax
  • Effects on Transmission
  • Conclusions
  • References
• A Major Transition in Malaria Treatment: The Adoption and Deployment of Artemisinin-Based Combination Therapies
  Andrea Bosman and Kamini N. Mendis.
  • Introduction
  • Materials and Methods
  • Results
  • Discussion
  • References
• Microbially Derived Artemisinin: A Biotechnology Solution to the Global Problem of Access to Affordable Antimalarial Drugs
  Victoria Hale, Jay D. Keasling, Neil Renninger, and Thierry T. Diagana.
  • Introduction
  • ACTs: The Last Line of Defense against a Global Scourge
  • References
• Medicine Sellers and Malaria Treatment in Sub-Saharan Africa: What Do They Do and How Can Their Practice Be Improved?
  Catherine Goodman , William Brieger , Alasdair Unwin , Anne Mills , Sylvia Meek , and George Greer.
  • Introduction
  • Methods
  • Results
  • Discussion
  • Conclusions
  • References
• A Global Subsidy for Antimalarial Drugs
  Hellen Gelband and Andreas Seiter.
  • Introduction
  • Discussion
  • Progress since the Release of Saving Lives, Buying Time
  • References
• Quick Wins versus Sustainability: Options for the Upscaling of Insecticide-Treated Nets
  Christian Lengeler, Mark Grabowsky, David McGuire, and Don deSavigny.
  • Introduction
  • ITNs: What Vision?
  • ITN Upscaling: Only within an Enabling Environment
  • Distribution of Free Nets through Public Channels
  • Developing the Commercial Sector for ITNs
  • Summary and Conclusions
  • References
• Broken Promise? Taxes and Tariffs on Insecticide Treated Mosquito Nets
  Martin Alilio, Halima Mwenesi, Lawrence M. Barat, Roshelle M. Payes, Suzanne Prysor-Jones, Malick Diara, David McGuire, and Willard Shaw.
  • Introduction
  • About This Viewpoint
  • Broken Promise?
  • Taxes and Tariffs Hamper the Supply of Insecticide Treated Nets in the Region
  • Legislative Hurdles Undermine Progress at the Country Level
  • Regional Issues Present a Special Problem
  • Lack of Effective Advocacy Strategies Lead to Foot Dragging
  • The Way Forward?
  • References
• Transgenic Mosquitoes and the Fight against Malaria: Managing Technology Push in a Turbulent GMO World
  Bart G. J. Knols, Hervé C. Bossin, Wolfgang R. Mukabana, and Alan S. Robinson.
  • Introduction
  • Technological Challenges
  • Transitional Challenges
  • Ethical, Legal, and Social Issues
  • Future Perspectives
  • References
• Evaluation of Bednets after 38 Months of Household Use in Northwest Ghana
  Stephen C. Smith, Uday B. Joshi, Mark Grabowsky, Joel Selanikio, Theresa Nobiya, and Thomas Aapore.
  • Introduction
  • Methods
  • Results
  • Discussion
  • References
• Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) for Indoor Residual Spraying in Africa: How Can It Be Used for Malaria Control?
  Shobha Sadasivaiah, Yeºim Tozan, and Joel G. Breman.
  • Introduction
  • History
  • Trends in Insecticide Use for Vector Control
  • Safety
  • Insecticide Resistance: Monitoring and Management
  • Costs and Cost Effectiveness
  • Recent Programs for Indoor Residual Spraying in Africa
  • Implementation, Monitoring, and Evaluation
  • Research Needs
  • Discussion
  • References
• Anopheles Gambiae Exploits the Treehole Ecosystem in Western Kenya: A New Urban Malaria Risk?
  Francois X. Omlin, John C. Carlson, C. Brandon Ogbunugafor, and Ahmed Hassanali.
  • Introduction
  • Materials and Methods
  • Results
  • Discussion
  • References
• New Interventions for Malaria: Mining the Human and Parasite Genomes
  Francine Ntoumi, Dominic P. Kwiatkowski, Mahamadou Diakité, Theonest K. Mutabingwa, and Patrick E. Duffy.
  • The Many Manifestations of Malaria
  • The Genome Promise and Some Questions
  • Mining the Parasite Genome
  • The Parasite Genome and Vaccine Discovery
  • Human Genomic Analysis of Malaria Resistance
  • Genome Science in the Field
  • Conclusions
  • References
• Methods for Determining Vaccine Efficacy and Effectiveness and the Main Barriers to Developing a Fully Deployable Malaria Vaccine
  Caterina Guinovart and Pedro L. Alonso.
  • Introduction
  • Complexity of Developing a Malaria Vaccine
  • Clinical Development Plan to Evaluate a P. FALCIPARUM Candidate Vaccine
  • Target Populations
  • Trial Endpoints
  • Plasmodium Vivax
  • Deployment
  • Conclusions
  • References
• Towards an African-Driven Malaria Vaccine Development Program: History and Activities of the African Malaria Network Trust (AMANET)
  Wen L. Kilama, Roma Chilengi, and Charles L. Wanga.
  • Introduction
  • Birth of the African Malaria Vaccine Testing Network (AMVTN)
  • AMVTN Gives Birth to AMANET
  • Governance of AMANET
  • International Conferences
  • Malaria Research Institutions in Africa
  • Training Workshops
  • Needs Assessment and Selection of Prospective Trial Sites
  • Conclusions and Lessons Learned
  • References
• Two Decades of Commitment to Malaria Vaccine Development: Glaxosmithkline Biologicals
  W. Ripley Ballou and Conor P. Cahill.
  • Introduction
  • Early Research and Development
  • More Recent Research and Development
  • Alternative Antigens for Combination and Prime-Boost Strategies
  • Toward the Future
  • References
• Multilateral Initiative on Malaria: Justification, Evolution, Achievements, Challenges, Opportunities, and Future Plans
  Joas B. Rugemalila, Olumide A. T. Ogundahunsi, Timothy T. Stedman, and Wen L. Kilama.
  • Justification for International Collaboration to Fight Malaria
  • Evolution of the Multilateral Initiative on Malaria
  • Implementation of the Review Recommendations
  • MIM Constituents and Responsibilities
  • Special Program for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases, WHO (TDR)
  • MIM Communication Network (MIMCom)
  • Malaria Research and Reference Reagent Resource Center (MR4)
  • MIM Challenges, Opportunities, and Achievements
  • Future Plans
  • References
• Research Themes and Advances in Malaria Research Capacity Made by the Multilateral Initiative on Malaria
  Florence N. Nantulya, Jane F. Kengeya-Kayondo, and Olumide A. T. Ogundahunsi.
  • Introduction
  • Conclusions
  • References
• Advocacy for Malaria Prevention, Control, and Research in the Twenty-First Century
  Nicole Bates and James Herrington.
  • Introduction
  • Unprecedented Progress
  • Coordinated Efforts
  • A New Policy Environment
  • A New Advocacy Community
  • Elements of Success
  • Future Prospects
  • References
• Building to Collective Impact: The Global Fund Support for Measuring Reduction in the Burden of Malaria
  Bernard L. Nahlen and Daniel Low-Beer.
  • Introduction
  • Key Malaria Control Goals and Targets
  • Conclusion
  • References