CHD7 Disorder

van Ravenswaaij-Arts CM, Hefner M, Blake K, et al.

Publication Details

Estimated reading time: 39 minutes

Summary

Clinical characteristics.

CHD7 disorder encompasses the entire phenotypic spectrum of heterozygous CHD7 pathogenic variants that includes CHARGE syndrome as well as subsets of features that comprise the CHARGE syndrome phenotype. The mnemonic CHARGE syndrome, introduced in the premolecular era, stands for coloboma, heart defect, choanal atresia, retarded growth and development, genital hypoplasia, ear anomalies (including deafness). Following the identification of the genetic cause of CHD7 disorder, the phenotypic spectrum expanded to include cranial nerve anomalies, vestibular defects, cleft lip and/or palate, hypothyroidism, tracheoesophageal anomalies, brain anomalies, seizures, and renal anomalies. Life expectancy highly depends on the severity of manifestations; mortality can be high in the first few years when severe birth defects (particularly complex heart defects) are present and often complicated by airway and feeding issues. In childhood, adolescence, and adulthood, decreased life expectancy is likely related to a combination of residual heart defects, infections, aspiration or choking, respiratory issues including obstructive and central apnea, and possibly seizures. Despite these complications, the life expectancy for many individuals can be normal.

Diagnosis/testing.

The diagnosis of CHD7 disorder is established in a proband with suggestive clinical and imaging findings and a heterozygous pathogenic variant in or deletion of CHD7 identified by molecular genetic testing.

Management.

Treatment of manifestations: Management of the manifestations of CHD7 disorder can be complex and require a multidisciplinary approach involving clinicians, therapists, and educators.

Surveillance: Requires routine follow up of manifestations identified in infancy/childhood, as well as ongoing monitoring of growth, development, educational progress, behavior, and possible endocrine issues.

Agents/circumstances to avoid: Because of the increased risk of post-anesthesia airway complications, procedures requiring anesthesia should be minimized and combined whenever possible.

Genetic counseling.

CHD7 disorder is an autosomal dominant disorder typically caused by a de novo pathogenic variant. In rare instances, an individual with CHD7 disorder inherits a pathogenic variant from a heterozygous parent. The risk to the sibs of the proband depends on the genetic status of the proband's parents: (1) If a parent of the proband has a CHD7 pathogenic variant, the risk to the sibs of inheriting the pathogenic variant is 50%; (2) If the CHD7 pathogenic variant identified in the proband cannot be detected in the leukocyte DNA of either parent, the empiric recurrence risk to sibs of a proband is approximately 1%-2% because of the possibility of parental germline mosaicism. Although many individuals with CHD7 disorder are not able to reproduce, each child of an individual with CHD7 disorder has a 50% chance of inheriting the pathogenic variant. Once the CHD7 pathogenic variant has been identified in an affected family member, prenatal and preimplantation genetic testing are possible.

GeneReview Scope

With the current widespread use of multigene panels and comprehensive genomic testing, it has become apparent that the phenotypic spectrum of heterozygous CHD7 pathogenic variants has broadened to encompass CHARGE syndrome as well as subsets of features that comprise the CHARGE syndrome phenotype. The title of this chapter, CHD7 disorder, refers to the entire phenotypic spectrum that can be associated with heterozygous CHD7 pathogenic variants and emphasizes both the need to evaluate an individual found to have a CHD7 pathogenic variant for medically actionable manifestations in the entire phenotypic spectrum (regardless of clinical findings that prompted molecular genetic testing) and the importance of counseling families that the finding of a CHD7 pathogenic variant is not equivalent to a diagnosis of CHARGE syndrome.

Diagnosis

Suggestive Findings

CHD7 disorder should be suspected in individuals with combinations of the following findings and family history.

Clinical and imaging findings

  • Coloboma of the iris, retina, choroid, and/or disc, and/or anophthalmos or microphthalmos
  • Choanal atresia or stenosis: unilateral or bilateral, bony or membranous, confirmed by axial sections of non-enhanced axial CT scan
  • Cleft palate with or without cleft lip (Note: Choanal atresia is rare in the presence of a cleft palate.)
  • Cranial nerve dysfunction or anomaly
    • Cranial nerve I. Hyposmia or anosmia
    • Cranial nerve VII. Facial palsy (unilateral or bilateral)
    • Cranial nerve VIII. Sensorineural hearing loss and/or balance problems, hypoplasia or aplasia on imaging
    • Cranial nerve IX/X. Difficulty with sucking/swallowing and aspiration, gut motility problems
  • Ear malformations (most characteristic of CHD7 disorder)
    • Auricle. Short, wide ear with little or no lobe, "snipped-off" helix, prominent antihelix that is often discontinuous with tragus, triangular concha, decreased cartilage; often protruding and usually asymmetric (See Figure 1.)
    • Middle ear. Ossicular malformations (resulting in a typical wedge-shaped audiogram due to mixed sensorineural and conductive hearing loss)
    • Temporal bone abnormalities (most commonly determined by temporal bone CT scan). Mondini defect of the cochlea (cochlear hypoplasia), absent or hypoplastic semicircular canals
  • Tracheoesophageal fistula or esophageal atresia
  • Cardiovascular malformation, including conotruncal defects (e.g., tetralogy of Fallot), AV canal defects, and aortic arch anomalies [Corsten-Janssen & Scambler 2017]
  • Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism
    • Males at birth. Micropenis and cryptorchidism
    • Females at birth. Hypoplastic labia, abnormal or (rarely) absent uterus
    • Males and females. Delayed or absent puberty, often in combination with anosmia [Bergman et al 2011a]
  • Developmental delay / intellectual disability, delayed motor milestones, often secondary to sensory and balance deficits
  • Growth deficiency. Short stature, usually postnatal with or without growth hormone deficiency
  • Other clinical features
    • Face. Square-shaped with broad forehead, broad nasal bridge, prominent nasal columella, flattened malar area, facial palsy or other asymmetry, cleft lip, and small chin (gets larger and broader with age) (See Figure 2.)
    • Neck. Short and wide with sloping shoulders [O'Grady et al 2016] (See Figure 2.)
    • Hands. Typically, short, wide palm with hockey-stick crease, short fingers, and finger-like thumb (see Figure 3); polydactyly and reduction defects in a small percentage [Van de Laar et al 2007]
  • Brain MRI. Clivus hypoplasia [de Geus et al 2018], hypoplasia of cerebellar vermis [Donovan et al 2017]
Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Ears 1a. Clipped-off helix, prominent antihelix that extends to the outer helical rim, antihelix discontinuous with the antitragus; absent lobe

Figure 2.

Figure 2.

Face 2a. Female age 2.5 years; square face, round eye, straight nose with broad nasal root, unilateral facial palsy

Figure 3.

Figure 3.

Hand Typical CHARGE hand: square hand, short fingers, finger-like thumb, hockey-stick palmar crease

Family history is consistent with autosomal dominant inheritance. While the majority of individuals with CHD7 disorder are simplex cases (i.e., a single occurrence in a family resulting from a de novo CHD7 pathogenic variant), familial occurrences consistent with autosomal dominant inheritance and germline mosaicism have been reported [Bergman et al 2011b, Legendre et al 2017]. Note: Absence of a family history of features consistent with CHD7 disorder does not preclude the diagnosis.

Establishing the Diagnosis

The diagnosis of CHD7 disorder is established in a proband with suggestive clinical and imaging findings and a heterozygous pathogenic (or likely pathogenic) variant in CHD7 identified by molecular genetic testing (see Table 1).

Note: (1) Per ACMG/AMP variant interpretation guidelines, the terms "pathogenic variant" and "likely pathogenic variant" are synonymous in a clinical setting, meaning that both are considered diagnostic and can be used for clinical decision making [Richards et al 2015]. Reference to "pathogenic variants" in this GeneReview is understood to include likely pathogenic variants. (2) Identification of a heterozygous CHD7 variant of uncertain significance does not establish or rule out the diagnosis.

Molecular genetic testing approaches can include a combination of gene-targeted testing (CHD7 single-gene testing, multigene panel) and comprehensive genomic testing (chromosomal microarray, exome sequencing, exome array, genome sequencing) depending on the phenotype.

Gene-targeted testing requires that the clinician determines which gene(s) are likely involved, whereas genomic testing does not. Individuals with suggestive findings are likely to be diagnosed using gene-targeted testing (see Option 1), whereas those with atypical findings are more likely to be diagnosed using genomic testing (see Option 2).

Option 1

Single-gene testing. Sequence analysis of CHD7 is performed to detect missense, nonsense, and splice site variants and small intragenic deletions/insertions. Note: Depending on the sequencing method used, single-exon, multiexon, or whole-gene deletions/duplications may not be detected. If no variant is detected by the sequencing method used, the next step is to perform gene-targeted deletion/duplication analysis to detect exon and whole-gene deletions or duplications and/or chromosomal microarray (CMA) to detect whole-gene deletions.

A multigene panel (e.g., for developmental delay, coloboma, deafness, heart defects, Kallmann syndrome, normosmic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism) that includes CHD7 and other genes of interest (see Differential Diagnosis) is most likely to identify the genetic cause of the condition while limiting identification of variants of uncertain significance and pathogenic variants in genes that do not explain the underlying phenotype. Note: (1) The genes included in the panel and the diagnostic sensitivity of the testing used for each gene vary by laboratory and are likely to change over time. (2) Some multigene panels may include genes not associated with the condition discussed in this GeneReview. (3) In some laboratories, panel options may include a custom laboratory-designed panel and/or custom phenotype-focused exome analysis that includes genes specified by the clinician. (4) Methods used in a panel may include sequence analysis, deletion/duplication analysis, and/or other non-sequencing-based tests.

For an introduction to multigene panels click here. More detailed information for clinicians ordering genetic tests can be found here.

Option 2

Comprehensive genomic testing does not require the clinician to determine which gene(s) are likely involved. Exome sequencing is most commonly used; genome sequencing is also possible.

Because CHD7 disorder typically includes multiple congenital anomalies, it is also reasonable to pursue chromosomal microarray testing first, unless classic features of CHD7 disorder (e.g., the CHARGE syndrome phenotype) are apparent.

Alternatively, if exome sequencing is not diagnostic, exome array (when clinically available) may be considered to detect (multi)exon deletions or duplications that cannot be detected by sequence analysis.

For an introduction to comprehensive genomic testing click here. More detailed information for clinicians ordering genomic testing can be found here.

Epigenetic signature analysis / methylation array. A distinctive epigenetic signature (disorder-specific genome-wide changes in DNA methylation profiles) in peripheral blood leukocytes has been identified in individuals with CHD7 disorder [Aref-Eshghi et al 2020, Levy et al 2021]. Epigenetic signature analysis of a peripheral blood sample or DNA banked from a blood sample can therefore be considered to clarify the diagnosis in individuals with: (1) suggestive findings of CHD7 disorder but in whom no pathogenic variant in CHD7 has been identified via sequence analysis or genomic testing; or (2) suggestive findings of CHD7 disorder and a variant of uncertain clinical significance identified by molecular genetic testing. For an introduction to epigenetic signature analysis click here.

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Table 1.

Molecular Genetic Testing Used in CHD7 Disorder

Clinical Characteristics

Clinical Description

In the premolecular era, the acronym CHARGE was proposed for the combination of the clinical features coloboma, heart defect, choanal atresia, retarded growth and development, genital hypoplasia, ear anomalies (including deafness) of unknown cause [Pagon et al 1981]. Clinical diagnostic criteria were refined for what became called CHARGE association [Blake et al 1998, Verloes 2005]. Following the discovery that heterozygous CHD7 variants and deletions cause CHARGE syndrome [Vissers et al 2004], molecular genetic testing of family members of probands with CHARGE syndrome expanded the phenotypic spectrum to include phenotypes that do not fulfill the previously proposed CHARGE syndrome clinical diagnostic criteria [Lalani et al 2006, Delahaye et al 2007, Jongmans et al 2009, Bergman et al 2011b, Hale et al 2016]. Thus, CHD7 disorder exhibits a high degree of clinical variability even among individuals in the same family and among individuals from different families with the same pathogenic variant [Jongmans et al 2008].

This section discusses only those reports in which a CHD7 pathogenic variant has been confirmed in affected individuals. To date reports of isolated manifestations of CHD7 disorder have been rare – many of which did not document a clinical workup sufficient to identify other features in the CHD7 disorder phenotypic spectrum. Thus, the percentages in Table 2 (based on persons with molecularly confirmed CHARGE syndrome [van Ravenswaaij-Arts & Martin 2017]) are likely to change over time as individuals with a CHD7 pathogenic variant ascertained through use of a multigene panel or genomic testing undergo a complete clinical evaluation (see Table 5).

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Table 2.

Features of CHD7 Disorder in Individuals Ascertained for CHARGE Syndrome

Because the majority of individuals with a pathogenic CHD7 variant have a typical CHARGE syndrome or CHARGE syndrome-like phenotype, the clinical features described below are relevant for most individuals with CHD7 disorder. In contrast, isolated hypogonadotropic hypogonadism with or without anosmia due to a pathogenic CHD7 missense variant appears to be rare [Xu et al 2018].

Development

Motor delay is invariably present due to vestibular anomalies and presents as poor head control, five-point crawl, delayed motor milestones, and reduced fine motor skills.

Language delay is caused by hearing loss, vision loss, vestibular anomalies, hospitalizations and illness, and/or cognitive impairment.

Assessment of cognitive abilities is difficult because of the multiple sensory deficits (vision, hearing, balance, smell), and much of the delay observed in motor and speech/language abilities is secondary to these deficits. Nonetheless, intellectual outcome is within the normal range in 50% of the individuals with clinical features consistent with CHARGE syndrome [Vesseur et al 2016b].

Children with better walking skills and fewer medical problems exhibit better adaptive behavior than children with less mobility and more medical problems [Salem-Hartshorne & Jacob 2005].

Behavioral features often reported are attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, repetitive behavior, and obsessive-compulsive behaviors. Self-abuse is occasionally seen. An increased pain threshold may predispose children to behaviors that are incorrectly interpreted by others as aggressive [Hartshorne et al 2005].

Many adults with clinical features consistent with CHARGE syndrome live independently, including many who have college or even advanced degrees. However, the level of independence comprises a broad spectrum [Blake et al 2005, Hartshorne et al 2016], depending, for each individual, on the combination of clinical features, educational program designed to address specific needs, and resources available.

Other Features

Gastrointestinal problems are frequently seen, mainly GI-related motility issues such as gastroesophageal reflux disease, constipation, and abdominal pain. Feeding challenges often result in tube feeding and problems with aspiration.

Late-onset issues can include malrotation of intestines, intussusception, and choking due to mouth overstuffing [Hudson et al 2015, Blake & Hudson 2017].

Immunodeficiency due to absent thymus (rarely) or decreased number or function of T-cells may occur [Wong et al 2015b]. Recurrent upper airway infections are common.

Skeletal involvement can include craniosynostosis, vertebral anomalies, scoliosis (in the majority of affected individuals) [Doyle & Blake 2005], extra or missing ribs, absent long bones (rare), ectrodactyly, polydactyly, finger-like thumb, and (more commonly) brachydactyly [Van de Laar et al 2007].

Hypermobility and contractures can be part of the syndrome.

Neuromuscular problems are common in CHARGE syndrome, mostly hypotonia (often resulting in scoliosis) and abnormal shoulder girdle muscles [O'Grady et al 2016]. Proprioception is diminished and, when in combination with balance problems, often results in a preference for pressure-building postures (upside-down position, legs twisted around one another) [Brown 2005].

Dental problems may include overbite, hypodontia, and poor mineralization of teeth [Chetty et al 2020].

Life expectancy highly depends on the severity of manifestations, since the phenotypic spectrum of CHD7 disorder is substantial. Mortality can be high in the first few years, when severe birth defects (particularly complex heart defects) are present, and are often complicated by airway and feeding issues. Feeding difficulties are usually due to cranial nerve abnormalities and improve gradually.

Multiple complex surgeries, along with the breathing problems or difficulty with anesthesia reported in CHARGE syndrome [Blake et al 2009], increase the risks associated with procedures.

After the first two or three years, mortality (and certainly morbidity and medical fragility) remains increased, with parents reporting frequent illnesses, infections, and hospitalizations [Bergman et al 2010].

In childhood, adolescence, and adulthood, increased mortality is likely related to a combination of residual heart defects, infections, aspiration or choking [Corsten-Janssen et al 2016], respiratory issues including obstructive and central apnea, and possibly seizures.

A number of families have reported serious (and in some instances lethal) intestinal issues such as volvulus [Lai & Feng 2006] and intussusception.

Despite these complications, the life span for many individuals can be normal. Individuals with clinical features consistent with CHARGE syndrome in their 60s who are in good health have been observed.

Genotype-Phenotype Correlations

While no clear genotype-phenotype correlations exist for CHD7-related CHARGE syndrome [Legendre et al 2017], in general, but not as a rule, missense variants are associated with a less severe phenotype [Bergman et al 2012].

CHD7-related hypogonadotropic hypogonadism with or without anosmia is more likely to be due to missense variants than nonsense variants.

Prevalence

Because of the more widespread use of genomic testing, it is currently difficult to assess the prevalence of CHD7 disorder.

In the past, when the diagnosis of CHARGE syndrome was based on clinical features or gene-specific molecular testing, its estimated prevalence ranged from one in 15,000 newborns in the Netherlands [Janssen et al 2012] to one in 8,500 in Canada [Issekutz et al 2005].

Differential Diagnosis

Genetic disorders with multiple features overlapping those associated with CHD7 disorder are summarized in Table 3 and Table 4.

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Table 3.

Genes to Consider in the Differential Diagnosis of CHD7 Disorder

Table 4 lists the chromosomal syndromes that overlap significantly with CHD7 disorder. Many other chromosome deletions have at least a few features that overlap with CHD7 disorder.

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Table 4.

Chromosomal Syndromes that Significantly Overlap with CHD7 Disorder

VACTERL association (OMIM 192350). CHD7 disorder and VACTERL association can both include vertebral anomalies, cardiac anomalies, tracheoesophageal fistula (or esophageal atresia), renal anomalies, and limb anomalies. Anal atresia, common in VACTERL, is rare in CHD7 disorder. Typical CHD7 disorder findings of temporal bone anomaly, choanal atresia, characteristic ear findings (outer and inner), and cranial nerve anomalies are rarely reported in VACTERL. The genetic basis of VACTERL association is unknown.

CHARGE syndrome-like features secondary to prenatal teratogen exposure. Exposure to Accutane™ at any time during the first trimester may result in malformations associated with abnormal migration of neural crest cells. These may include microtia/anotia, micrognathia, cleft palate, conotruncal heart defects, and aortic-arch abnormalities, thymic defects, retinal or optic nerve abnormalities, and central nervous system malformations [Lammer et al 1985].

Exposure to antithyroid agents, especially methimazole, has been reported to result in a variety of congenital anomalies including choanal and esophageal atresia, iris and retinal coloboma, hearing loss, and delayed neurodevelopment. The risk of birth defects in fetuses exposed during the first trimester of pregnancy has been estimated at 2%-3% [Andersen et al 2013, Komoike et al 2013, Andersen et al 2017].

Management

The management of the manifestations of CHD7 disorder can be complex and require a multidisciplinary approach involving clinicians, therapists, and educators. Published CHARGE syndrome guidelines (including one-page summaries) for clinical management [Trider et al 2017] (see Figure 4) and cranial imaging guidelines [de Geus et al 2017] (full text) are available.

Figure 4.

Figure 4.

CHARGE syndrome checklist Reproduced from Trider et al [2017]

Evaluations Following Initial Diagnosis

To establish the extent of disease and needs of an individual diagnosed with CHD7 disorder, the evaluations summarized in Table 5 (if not performed as part of the evaluation that led to the diagnosis) are recommended.

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Table 5.

Recommended Evaluations Following Initial Diagnosis in an Individual with a CHD7 Disorder

Treatment of Manifestations

Management of children with a CHD7 disorder requires coordinated multidisciplinary care (Table 6).

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Table 6.

Treatment of Manifestations in Individuals with a CHD7 Disorder

Figure 5.

Figure 5.

CT and MR Scanning in CHARGE Syndrome

Reproduced from de Geus et al [2017]

Developmental Delay / Intellectual Disability Management Issues

The following information represents typical management recommendations for individuals with developmental delay / intellectual disability in the United States; standard recommendations may vary from country to country.

Ages 0-3 years. Referral to an early intervention program is recommended for access to occupational, physical, speech, and feeding therapy as well as infant mental health services, special educators, and sensory impairment specialists. In the US, early intervention is a federally funded program available in all states and provides in-home services to target individual therapy needs.

Ages 3-5 years. In the US, developmental preschool through the local public school district is recommended. Before placement, an evaluation is made to determine needed services and therapies and an individualized education plan (IEP) is developed for those who qualify based on established motor, language, social or cognitive delay. The early intervention program typically assists with this transition. Developmental preschool is center based; for children too medically unstable to attend, home-based services may be provided.

All ages. Consultation with a developmental pediatrician is recommended to ensure the involvement of appropriate community, state, and educational agencies and to support parents in maximizing quality of life. Some issues to consider:

  • IEP services:
    • An IEP provides specially designed instruction and related services to children who qualify.
    • IEP services will be reviewed annually to determine whether any changes are needed.
    • Special education law requires that children participating in an IEP be in the least restrictive environment feasible at school and included in general education as much as possible, when and where appropriate.
    • Vision and hearing consultants should be a part of the child's IEP team to support access to academic material.
    • PT, OT, and speech services will be provided in the IEP to the extent that the need affects the child's access to academic material. Beyond that, private supportive therapies based on the affected individual's needs may be considered. Specific recommendations regarding type of therapy can be made by a developmental pediatrician.
    • As a child enters the teen years, a transition plan should be discussed and incorporated in the IEP. For those receiving IEP services, the public school district is required to provide services until age 21.
  • A 504 plan (Section 504: a US federal statute that prohibits discrimination based on disability) can be considered for those who require accommodations or modifications such as front-of-class seating, assistive technology devices, classroom scribes, extra time between classes, modified assignments, and enlarged text.
  • Developmental Disabilities Administration (DDA) enrollment is recommended. DDA is a US public agency that provides services and support to qualified individuals. Eligibility differs by state but is typically determined by diagnosis and/or associated cognitive/adaptive disabilities.
  • Families with limited income and resources may also qualify for supplemental security income (SSI) for their child with a disability.
  • State deaf-blind services:
    • In addition to the educational services in the US discussed above, state-level federally funded programs are mandated to provide services for individuals from birth to age 21 years with combined hearing and vision issues (nationaldb.org/). Of note, the designation "deaf-blind," used to qualify individuals with combined vision and hearing loss for these services, does not imply total hearing loss or total vision loss.
    • State deaf-blind services typically provide information and training to families, technical assistance to schools and early intervention programs, and assistance with IEPs and transitions.

Communication

A growing body of evidence indicates that normal language development can occur if hearing habilitation is started prior to age six months for hearing-impaired children, whether or not they are visually impaired. (See Hereditary Hearing Loss and Deafness Overview, which provides details about management.)

Depending on the degrees of hearing and vision loss, communication may start with touch cues, followed by object cues and proceeding to auditory/oral and/or sign language. Communication training initiated by age three years is critical to the eventual development of symbolic communication [Thelin & Fussner 2005]. Use of all available means of communication (visual, oral, touch, and incorporating gestures, sign and oral languages) is advisable early on. Most affected children are able to migrate to oral communication as they get older, even if they start with sign and/or total communication.

Surveillance

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Table 7.

Recommended Surveillance for Individuals with CHD7 Disorder

Agents/Circumstances to Avoid

Anesthesia. Airway problems associated with anesthesia are common in individuals with CHARGE syndrome. They may be attributed to choanal atresia, cleft lip and palate, and other upper-airway structural anomalies and associated cranial nerve abnormalities. Soft cartilage and resultant floppy trachea add to potential anesthesia risk. Neurogenic incoordination of swallow and closure of the epiglottis may complicate the postoperative course, especially with repeated general anesthetics [Blake et al 2009]. Because of the increased risk of post-anesthesia airway complications, procedures requiring anesthesia should be minimized and combined whenever possible [de Geus et al 2017].

Evaluation of Relatives at Risk

See Genetic Counseling for issues related to testing of at-risk relatives for genetic counseling purposes.

Therapies Under Investigation

Search ClinicalTrials.gov in the US and EU Clinical Trials Register in Europe for access to information on clinical studies for a wide range of diseases and conditions. Note: There may not be clinical trials for this disorder.

Genetic Counseling

Genetic counseling is the process of providing individuals and families with information on the nature, mode(s) of inheritance, and implications of genetic disorders to help them make informed medical and personal decisions. The following section deals with genetic risk assessment and the use of family history and genetic testing to clarify genetic status for family members; it is not meant to address all personal, cultural, or ethical issues that may arise or to substitute for consultation with a genetics professional. —ED.

Mode of Inheritance

CHD7 disorder is an autosomal dominant disorder typically caused by a de novo pathogenic variant.

Risk to Family Members

Parents of a proband

  • Most individuals diagnosed with a CHD7 disorder have the disorder as the result of a de novo pathogenic variant [Janssen et al 2012].
  • In rare instances, an individual with CHD7 disorder has the disorder as the result of a pathogenic variant inherited from a heterozygous parent. A parent who is heterozygous for a CHD7 pathogenic variant may have one or more features associated with CHD7 disorder [Mitchell et al 1985, Lalani et al 2006, Delahaye et al 2007, Bergman et al 2011b].
  • Molecular genetic testing is recommended for the parents of a proband to confirm their genetic status and to allow reliable recurrence risk counseling.
  • If the CHD7 pathogenic variant identified in the proband is not identified in either parent, the following possibilities should be considered:
    • The proband has a de novo pathogenic variant. Note: A pathogenic variant is reported as "de novo" if: (1) the pathogenic variant found in the proband is not detected in parental DNA; and (2) parental identity testing has confirmed biological maternity and paternity. If parental identity testing is not performed, the variant is reported as "assumed de novo" [Richards et al 2015].
    • The proband inherited a pathogenic variant from a parent with somatic/germline mosaicism. Somatic mosaicism for a CHD7 pathogenic variant has been documented [Jongmans et al 2008]. (Note: Testing of parental leukocyte DNA may not detect all instances of somatic mosaicism.)

Sibs of a proband. The risk to the sibs of the proband depends on the genetic status of the proband's parents:

  • If a parent of the proband has a CHD7 pathogenic variant, the risk to the sibs of inheriting the pathogenic variant is 50%.
  • If the CHD7 pathogenic variant identified in the proband cannot be detected in the leukocyte DNA of either parent, the empiric recurrence risk to sibs of a proband is approximately 1%-2% because of the possibility of parental germline mosaicism [Jongmans et al 2008, Pauli et al 2009].
  • The severity of CHD7 disorder in a proband does not predict the severity of the disorder in sibs who inherit a pathogenic variant. (A high degree of clinical variability is observed CHD7 disorder; see Clinical Characteristics.)

Offspring of a proband

  • Many individuals with CHD7 disorder are not able to reproduce.
  • Each child of an individual with CHD7 disorder has a 50% chance of inheriting the pathogenic variant.
  • The severity of CHD7 disorder in the proband does not predict the severity of the disorder in heterozygous offspring (a high degree of clinical variability is observed in CHD7 disorder; see Clinical Characteristics).

Other family members. The risk to other family members depends on the genetic status of the proband's parents; if a parent has the CHD7 pathogenic variant, the parent's family members may be at risk.

Related Genetic Counseling Issues

For a review of genetic counseling issues in families in which a child has been diagnosed with CHARGE syndrome, see Hefner & Fassi [2017].

Family planning

  • The optimal time for determination of genetic risk and discussion of the availability of prenatal/preimplantation genetic testing is before pregnancy.
  • It is appropriate to offer genetic counseling (including discussion of potential risks to offspring and reproductive options) to the parents of affected children and to young adults who are mildly affected.

Prenatal Testing and Preimplantation Genetic Testing

Once the CHD7 pathogenic variant has been identified in an affected family member, prenatal and preimplantation genetic testing are possible.

Differences in perspective may exist among medical professionals and within families regarding the use of prenatal testing. While most centers would consider use of prenatal testing to be a personal decision, discussion of these issues may be helpful.

Resources

GeneReviews staff has selected the following disease-specific and/or umbrella support organizations and/or registries for the benefit of individuals with this disorder and their families. GeneReviews is not responsible for the information provided by other organizations. For information on selection criteria, click here.

Molecular Genetics

Information in the Molecular Genetics and OMIM tables may differ from that elsewhere in the GeneReview: tables may contain more recent information. —ED.

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Table A.

CHD7 Disorder: Genes and Databases

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Table B.

OMIM Entries for CHD7 Disorder (View All in OMIM)

Molecular Pathogenesis

CHD7 encodes a chromodomain protein that is involved in the ATP-dependent remodeling of chromatin. CHD7 binds to more than 10,000 sites in the mammalian genome and interacts with dozens of other genes. Features of CHD7-related disorders may be due to loss of ribosomal biogenesis or other mechanisms.

CHD7 functions in a multiprotein complex and uses the energy of ATP to remodel nucleosomes. CHD7 is considered an epigenetic regulator because it modifies the degree to which chromatin is "open" or "closed," making it more or less accessible, respectively, to other proteins that activate or repress gene expression. The broad variability in phenotypes observed in individuals with CHD7 disorder is not fully understood, but is likely related to its unique roles in specific cells and tissues at various times during development.

Mechanism of disease causation. Decreased function or loss of function of CHD7 leads to the clinical manifestations of CHD7 disorder.

Chapter Notes

Author History

John W Belmont, MD, PhD; Baylor College of Medicine (2006-2020)
Kim Blake, MD, MRCP, FRCPC (2020-present)
Sandra LH Davenport, MD, CM; Sensory Genetics/Neurodevelopment, Bloomington, Minnesota (2006-2020)
Meg Hefner, MS (2006-present)
Seema R Lalani, MD; Baylor College of Medicine (2006-2020)
Donna M Martin, MD, PhD (2020-present)
Conny M van Ravenswaaij-Arts, MD, PhD (2020-present)

Revision History

  • 29 September 2022 (sw) Revision: epigenetic signature analysis (Establishing the Diagnosis, Option 2)
  • 17 September 2020 (bp) Comprehensive update posted live
  • 2 February 2012 (me) Comprehensive update posted live
  • 22 September 2009 (me) Comprehensive update posted live
  • 2 October 2006 (me) Review posted live
  • 14 April 2005 (jwb) Original submission

References

Literature Cited

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Suggested Reading

  • Hartshorne T, Hefner M, Davenport SLH, Thelin J. CHARGE Syndrome, 1 ed. Plural Publishing. 2011.

  • Issue devoted entirely to CHARGE syndrome. Am J Med Genet C Semin Med Genet 2017;175(4).