1. Pregnancy outcomes

1a. Duration of gestation

1.

Olsen S F, Hansen H S, Sommer S, Jensen B, Sorensen T I, Secher N J, Zachariassen P. Gestational age in relation to marine n-3 fatty acids in maternal erythrocytes: a study of women in the Faroe Islands and Denmark. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1991;164(5 Pt 1):p.1203–1209. [PubMed: 1827949]

2.

Grandjean P, Bjerve K S, Weihe P, Steuerwald U. Birthweight in a fishing community: significance of essential fatty acids and marine food contaminants.[comment] Int J Epidemiol. 2001;30(6):p.1272–1278. [PubMed: 11821327]

3.

Velzing-Aarts F V, van der Klis F R, van der Dijs F P, Muskiet F A. Umbilical vessels of preeclamptic women have low contents of both n-3 and n-6 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;69(2):p.293–298. [PubMed: 9989695]

4.

Araya, Araya J, Rojas, Garcia M, Fernandez, Fraile P, Mateluna, Acevedo A. [Differences in percent composition of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in maternal-fetal erythrocytes in term and preterm infants]. [Spanish] Arch Latinoam Nutr. 1998;48(3):p.210–215. [PubMed: 9951532]

5.

Araya J, Rojas M, Fernandez P, Mateluna A. [Essential fatty acid content of maternal erythrocyte phospholipids. A study in preterm and full-term human newborns]. [Spanish] Rev Med Chil. 1998;126(4):p.391–396. [PubMed: 9699369]

6.

Wang J, Zhang Y. Effect of the long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids levels in mothers on fetuses. [Chinese] Chung-Hua Fu Chan Ko Tsa Chih [Chinese Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology] 1998;33(12):p.722–723. [PubMed: 10806659]

7.

Kesmodel U, Olsen S F, Salvig J D. Marine n-3 fatty acid and calcium intake in relation to pregnancy induced hypertension, intrauterine growth retardation, and preterm delivery. A case-control study. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1997;76(1):p.38–44. [PubMed: 9033242]

8.

Foreman-van Drongelen M M, Al M D, van Houwelingen A C, Blanco C E, Hornstra G. Comparison between the essential fatty acid status of preterm and full-term infants, measured in umbilical vessel walls. Early Hum Dev. 1995 18-8;42(3):p.241–251. [PubMed: 7493590]

9.

Olsen S F, Hansen H S, Secher N J, Jensen B, Sandstrom B. Gestation length and birth weight in relation to intake of marine n-3 fatty acids. Br J Nutr. 1995;73(3):p.397–404. [PubMed: 7766563]

10.

Vizek K, Mourek J, Base J, Smidova L, Mikova M, Cechova I. [Serum fatty acids in premature neonates]. [Czech] Sb Lek. 1993;94(1):p.19–24. [PubMed: 7991993]

11.

Olsen S F, Grandjean P, Weihe P, Videro T. Frequency of seafood intake in pregnancy as a determinant of birth weight: evidence for a dose dependent relationship. J Epidemiol Community Health. 1993;47(6):p.436–440. [PMC free article: PMC1059854] [PubMed: 8120495]

12.

Leaf A A, Leighfield M J, Costeloe K L, Crawford M A. Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and fetal growth. Early Hum Dev. 1992;30(3):p.183–191. [PubMed: 1468382]

13.

Leaf A A, Leighfield M J, Costeloe K L, Crawford M A. Factors affecting long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid composition of plasma choline phosphoglycerides in preterm infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1992;14(3):p.300–308. [PubMed: 1535657]

14.

Olsen S F, Olsen J, Frische G. Does fish consumption during pregnancy increase fetal growth? A study of the size of the newborn. lacental weight and gestational age in relation to fish consumption during pregnancy. Int J Epidemiol. 1990;19(4):p.971–977. [PubMed: 2084030]

15.

Olsen S F, Secher N J. A possible preventive effect of low-dose fish oil on early delivery and pre-eclampsia: indications from a 50-year-old controlled trial. Br J Nutr. 1990;64(3):p.599–609. [PubMed: 2265175]

16.

Olsen S F, Hansen H S, Jensen B, Sorensen T I. Pregnancy duration and the ratio of long-chain n-3 fatty acids to arachidonic acid in erythrocytes from Faroese women. J Intern Med Suppl. 1989;225(731):p.185–189. [PubMed: 2706041]

17.

Olsen S F, Hansen H S, Sorensen T I, Jensen B, Secher N J, Sommer S, Knudsen L B. Intake of marine fat, rich in (n-3)-polyunsaturated fatty acids, may increase birthweight by prolonging gestation. Lancet. 1986 16-8;2(8503):p.367–369. [PubMed: 2874370]

18.

Olsen S F, Secher N J. Low consumption of seafood in early pregnancy as a risk factor for preterm delivery: Prospective cohort study. Br Med J. 2002 23-2;324(7335):p.23. [PMC free article: PMC65663] [PubMed: 11859044]

1b. Gestational hypertension, pre-eclampsia and eclampsia

1.

Clausen T, Slott M, Solvoll K, Drevon C A, Vollset S E, Henriksen T. High intake of energy, sucrose, and polyunsaturated fatty acids is associated with increased risk of preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001;185(2):p.451–458. [PubMed: 11518908]

2.

Velzing-Aarts F V, van der Klis F R, van der Dijs F P, Muskiet F A. Umbilical vessels of preeclamptic women have low contents of both n-3 and n-6 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;69(2):p.293–298. [PubMed: 9989695]

3.

Kesmodel U, Olsen S F, Salvig J D. Marine n-3 fatty acid and calcium intake in relation to pregnancy induced hypertension, intrauterine growth retardation, and preterm delivery. A case-control study. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1997;76(1):p.38–44. [PubMed: 9033242]

4.

Williams M A, Zingheim R W, King I B, Zebelman A M. Omega-3 fatty acids in maternal erythrocytes and risk of preeclampsia. Epidemiology. 1995;6(3):p.232–237. [PubMed: 7619928]

5.

Gerrard, J., Popeski, D., Ebbeling, L., Brown, P., and Hornstra, G., Dietary omega 3 fatty acids and gestational hypertension in the Inuit, Arctic Med Res, Suppl, 1991, p.763–767. [PubMed: 1365294]

6.

Popeski D, Ebbeling L R, Brown P B, Hornstra G, Gerrard J M. Blood pressure during pregnancy in Canadian Inuit: community differences related to diet. CMAJ. 1991 1-9;145(5):p.445–454. [PMC free article: PMC1335827] [PubMed: 1878826]

7.

van der Schouw Y T, Al M D, Hornstra G, Bulstra-Ramakers M T, Huisjes H J. Fatty acid composition of serum lipids of mothers and their babies after normal and hypertensive pregnancies. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 1991;44(4):p.247–252. [PubMed: 1815240]

8.

Olsen S F, Secher N J. A possible preventive effect of low-dose fish oil on early delivery and pre-eclampsia: indications from a 50-year-old controlled trial. Br J Nutr. 1990;64(3):p.599–609. [PubMed: 2265175]

1c. Small for Gestational Age

1.

Grandjean P, Bjerve K S, Weihe P, Steuerwald U. Birthweight in a fishing community: significance of essential fatty acids and marine food contaminants.[comment] Int J Epidemiol. 2001;30(6):p.1272–1278. [PubMed: 11821327]

2.

Velzing-Aarts F V, van der Klis F R, van der Dijs F P, Muskiet F A. Umbilical vessels of preeclamptic women have low contents of both n-3 and n-6 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;69(2):p.293–298. [PubMed: 9989695]

3.

Wang J, Zhang Y. Effect of the long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids levels in mothers on fetuses. [Chinese] Chung-Hua Fu Chan Ko Tsa Chih [Chinese Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology] 1998;33(12):p.722–723. [PubMed: 10806659]

4.

Zhang L. The effects of essential fatty acids preparation in the treatment of intrauterine growth retardation. Am J Perinatol. 1997;14(9):p.535–537. [PubMed: 9394162]

5.

Badart-Smook A, van Houwelingen A C, Al M D, Kester A D, Hornstra G. Fetal growth is associated positively with maternal intake of riboflavin and negatively with maternal intake of linoleic acid. J Am Diet Assoc. 1997;97(8):p.867–870. [PubMed: 9259708]

6.

Kesmodel U, Olsen S F, Salvig J D. Marine n-3 fatty acid and calcium intake in relation to pregnancy induced hypertension, intrauterine growth retardation, and preterm delivery. A case-control study. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1997;76(1):p.38–44. [PubMed: 9033242]

7.

Mourek J, Dohnalova A. Relationship between birth weight of newborns and unsaturated fatty acid(n-3) proportions in their blood serum. Physiol Res. 1996;45(2):p.165–168. [PubMed: 9496767]

8.

Foreman-van Drongelen M M, Al M D, van Houwelingen A C, Blanco C E, Hornstra G. Comparison between the essential fatty acid status of preterm and full-term infants, measured in umbilical vessel walls. Early Hum Dev. 1995 18-8;42(3):p.241–251. [PubMed: 7493590]

9.

Olsen S F, Hansen H S, Secher N J, Jensen B, Sandstrom B. Gestation length and birth weight in relation to intake of marine n-3 fatty acids. Br J Nutr. 1995;73(3):p.397–404. [PubMed: 7766563]

10.

Foreman-van Drongelen M M, van Houwelingen A C, Kester A D, Hasaart T H, Blanco C E, Hornstra G. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in preterm infants: status at birth and its influence on postnatal levels. J Pediatr. 1995;126(4):p.611–618. [PubMed: 7699544]

11.

Felton C V, Chang T C, Crook D, Marsh M, Robson S C, Spencer J A. Umbilical vessel wall fatty acids after normal and retarded fetal growth. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 1994;70(1):p.F36– F39. [PMC free article: PMC1060985] [PubMed: 8117125]

12.

Olsen S F, Grandjean P, Weihe P, Videro T. Frequency of seafood intake in pregnancy as a determinant of birth weight: evidence for a dose dependent relationship. J Epidemiol Community Health. 1993;47(6):p.436–440. [PMC free article: PMC1059854] [PubMed: 8120495]

13.

Leaf A A, Leighfield M J, Costeloe K L, Crawford M A. Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and fetal growth. Early Hum Dev. 1992;30(3):p.183–191. [PubMed: 1468382]

14.

Leaf A A, Leighfield M J, Costeloe K L, Crawford M A. Factors affecting long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid composition of plasma choline phosphoglycerides in preterm infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1992;14(3):p.300–308. [PubMed: 1535657]

15.

Koletzko B, Braun M. Arachidonic acid and early human growth: is there a relation? Ann Nutr Metab. 1991;35(3):p.128–131. [PubMed: 1952812]

16.

Harper V, MacInnes R, Campbell D, Hall M. Increased birth weight in northerly islands: is fish consumption a red herring? BMJ. 1991 20-7;303(6795):p.166. [PMC free article: PMC1670406] [PubMed: 1878642]

17.

Olsen S F, Olsen J, Frische G. Does fish consumption during pregnancy increase fetal growth? A study of the size of the newborn, placental weight and gestational age in relation to fish consumption during pregnancy. Int J Epidemiol. 1990;19(4):p.971–977. [PubMed: 2084030]

18.

Crawford M A, Costeloe K, Doyle W, Leighfield M J, Lennon E A, Meadows N. Potential diagnostic value of the umbilical artery as a definition of neural fatty acid status of the fetus during its growth: the umbilical artery as a diagnostic tool. Biochem Soc Trans. 1990;18(5):p.761–766. [PubMed: 2083670]

19.

Crawford M A, Doyle W, Drury P, Lennon A, Costeloe K, Leighfield M. n-6 and n-3 fatty acids during early human development. J Intern Med Suppl. 1989;225(731):p.159–169. [PubMed: 2706039]

20.

Olsen S F, Secher N J. A possible preventive effect of low-dose fish oil on early delivery and pre-eclampsia: indications from a 50-year-old controlled trial. Br J Nutr. 1990;64(3):p.599–609. [PubMed: 2265175]

21.

Hansen I B, Friis-Hansen B, Clausen J. The fatty acid composition of umbilical cord serum, infant serum and maternal serum and its relation to the diet. Z Ernahrungswiss. 1969;9(4):p.352–363. [PubMed: 5395483]

22.

Olsen S F, Secher N J. Low consumption of seafood in early pregnancy as a risk factor for preterm delivery: Prospective cohort study. Br Med J. 2002 23-2;324(7335):p.23. [PMC free article: PMC65663] [PubMed: 11859044]

23.

Matorras R, De Larrucea A L, Sanjurjo P, Ruiz J I, Echevarria Y, Nieto A, Perteagudo L, Aldamiz-Echvarria J L. Increased tissue concentrations of arachidonic acid in umbilical artery and placenta in fetal growth retardation. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2001;80(9) [PubMed: 11531630]

2. Growth Pattern Outcomes

1.

Foreman-van Drongelen M M, van Houwelingen A C, Kester A D, Hasaart T H, Blanco C E, Hornstra G. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in preterm infants: status at birth and its influence on postnatal levels. J Pediatr. 1995;126(4):p.611–618. [PubMed: 7699544]

2.

Guldan G S, Zhang M Y, Zhang Y P, Hong J R, Zhang H X, Fu S Y, Fu N S. Weaning practices and growth in rural Sichuan infants: a positive deviance study. J Trop Pediatr. 1993;39(3):p.168–175. [PubMed: 8326537]

3.

Olsen S F, Olsen J, Frische G. Does fish consumption during pregnancy increase fetal growth? A study of the size of the newborn, placental weight and gestational age in relation to fish consumption during pregnancy. Int J Epidemiol. 1990;19(4):p.971–977. [PubMed: 2084030]

4.

Fomon S J, Thomas L N, Filer L J Jr, Ziegler E E, Leonard M T. Food consumption and growth of normal infants fed milk-based formulas. Acta Paediatr Scand Suppl. 1971;223:p.1–36. [PubMed: 5291969]

5.

Decsi, T., Kelemen, B., Minda, H., Burus, I., and Kohn, G., Effect of type of early infant feeding on fatty acid composition of plasma lipid classes in full-term infants during the second 6 months of life, J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr, 30(5), 2000. [PubMed: 10817286]

6.

Clandinin M T, Aerde J E, van Parrott A, Field C J, Euler A R, Lien E, Van Aerde J E. Assessment of feeding different amounts of arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids in preterm infant formulas on the fatty acid content of lipoprotein lipids. Acta Paediatr. 1999;88(8):p.890–896. [PubMed: 10503691]

7.

Clandinin M T, Aerde J E, van Parrott A, Field C J, Euler A R, Lien E L, Van Aerde J E. Assessment of the efficacious dose of arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids in preterm infant formulas: fatty acid composition of erythrocyte membrane lipids. Pediatr Res. 1997;42(6):p.819–825. [PubMed: 9396564]

8.

Tichelaar H Y, Steyn N P, Nel J H, Smuts C M, Jaarsveld P J, van Prinsloo J F, Rooyen J, van Lombard C J, Dhansay M A, Benade A J S, van Jaarsveld P J, van Rooyen J. Effect of catfish supplementation on the fatty acid status and growth of undernourished rural preschool children under 6 years of age: an intervention trial in Lebowa, South Africa. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 1999;8(2):p.96–105. [PubMed: 24393792]

9.

Courage M L, McCloy U R, Herzberg G R, Andrews W L, Simmons B S, McDonald A C, Mercer C N, Friel J K. Visual acuity development and fatty acid composition of erythrocytes in full-term infants fed breast milk, commercial formula, or evaporated milk. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 1998;19(1):p.9–17. [PubMed: 9524300]

3. Neurological outcomes

1.

Vik T, Bjerve K, Andersson H. Psychomotor development at one year of age in very low birth weight infants and omega-3 fatty acid status. Pediatr Res. 1991;29:p.305a.

2.

Bjerve K S, Brubakk A M, Fougner K J, Johnsen H, Midthjell K, Vik T. Omega-3 fatty acids: essential fatty acids with important biological effects, and serum phospholipid fatty acids as markers of dietary omega 3-fatty acid intake. Am J Clin Nutr. 1993;57(5 Suppl):p.801S– 805S. [PubMed: 8475898]

3.

Bjerve K S, Thoresen L, Bonaa K, Vik T, Johnsen H, Brubakk A M. Clinical studies with alpha-linolenic acid and long-chain n-3 fatty acids. Nutrition. 1992;8(2):p.130–132. [PubMed: 1350473]

4.

Agostoni C, Marangoni F, Giovannini M, Galli C, Riva E. Prolonged breast-feeding (six months or more) and milk fat content at six months are associated with higher developmental scores at one year of age within a breast-fed population. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2001;501:p.137–141. [PubMed: 11787675]

5.

Agostoni C, Verduci E, Massetto N, Radaelli G, Riva E, Giovannini M. Plasma long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and neurodevelopment through the first 12 months of life in phenylketonuria. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2003;45(4):p.257–261. [PubMed: 12647927]

6.

Cheruku S R, Montgomery-Downs H E, Farkas S L, Thoman E B, Lammi-Keefe C J. Higher maternal plasma docosahexaenoic acid during pregnancy is associated with more mature neonatal sleep-state patterning. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;76(3):p.608–613. [PubMed: 12198007]

4. Cognitive Outcomes

1.

Bakker E C, Ghys A J, Kester A D, Vles J S, Dubas J S, Blanco C E, Hornstra G. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids at birth and cognitive function at 7 y of age. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2003;57(1):p.89–95. [PubMed: 12548302]

2.

Santiago, Burruchaga M, Ruiz-Sanz J I, Pijoan-Zubizarreta J I, Benito, Fernandez J, Sanjurjo, Crespo P. Intellectual development in the second year of life in healthy breast-fed children vs. formula-fed children. An Esp Pediatr. 2000;52(6):p.530–536. [PubMed: 11003961]

5. Visual outcomes

1.

Werkman S H, Carlson S E. A randomized trial of visual attention of preterm infants fed docosahexaenoic acid until nine months. Lipids. 1996;31(1):p.91–97. [PubMed: 8649241]

2.

Carlson S E, Werkman S H. A randomized trial of visual attention of preterm infants fed docosahexaenoic acid until two months. Lipids. 1996;31(1):p.85–90. [PubMed: 8649239]

3.

Carlson S E, Werkman S H, Rhodes P G, Tolley E A. Visual-acuity development in healthy preterm infants: effect of marine-oil supplementation. Am J Clin Nutr. 1993;58(1):p.35–42. [PubMed: 8317386]

4.

Birch E E, Birch D G, Hoffman D R, Uauy R. Dietary essential fatty acid supply and visual acuity development. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1992;33(11):p.3242–3253. [PubMed: 1399429]

5.

Agostoni C, Verduci E, Massetto N, Radaelli G, Riva E, Giovannini M. Plasma long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and neurodevelopment through the first 12 months of life in phenylketonuria. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2003;45(4):p.257–261. [PubMed: 12647927]

6.

Innis S M, Nelson C M, Lwanga D, Rioux F M, Waslen P. Feeding formula without arachidonic acid and docosahexaenoic acid has no effect on preferential looking acuity or recognition memory in healthy full-term infants at 9 mo of age. Am J Clin Nutr. 1996;64(1):p.40–46. [PubMed: 8669412]

7.

Courage M L, McCloy U R, Herzberg G R, Andrews W L, Simmons B S, McDonald A C, Mercer C N, Friel J K. Visual acuity development and fatty acid composition of erythrocytes in full-term infants fed breast milk, commercial formula, or evaporated milk. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 1998;19(1):p.9–17. [PubMed: 9524300]

8.

Carlson S E, Peeples J M, Werkman S H. Docosahexaenoate (DHA) and eicosapentaenoate (EPA) status of preterm infants: relationship to the Fagantest of Infant intelligence and the Bayley scale of mental development. FASEB J. 1990;4:p.A1156.

9.

Carlson S E, Cooke R J, Peeples J M. Docosahexaenoate (DHA) and eicosapentaenoate (EPA) status of preterm infants: relationship to visual acuity in n-3 supplemented and unsupplemented infants. Pediatr Res. 1989;25:p.285a.