Epilepsy occurs frequently in individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). However, the mechanisms responsible for increased seizure susceptibility in ASD are largely unknown. Clues to neural hyperexcitability in the autistic brain might be derived from disorders in which single gene mutations cause both epilepsy and an autistic phenotype, such as fragile X syndrome and tuberous sclerosis complex. This chapter summarizes current understanding of epilepsy in individuals with ASD and explores potential links between the genetic disruption of neural circuits and cellular signaling pathways that contribute to both epilepsy and ASD.

INTRODUCTION

Why are seizures so common in children with autism? This relatively straightforward question does not, unfortunately, have a straightforward answer. In this chapter, we explore this question from clinical, pathophysiological, and molecular perspectives, using as examples two genetic disorders that share a high prevalence of autism and epilepsy – fragile X syndrome (FXS) and tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC), with the hope that understanding the pathophysiology of these monogenic conditions will lead to broader understanding of neural hyperexcitability in other autism syndromes. We conclude by discussing cellular and network dysfunction that might be amenable to targeted treatments in these disorders, with potential wider applicability to idiopathic autism.

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are neurodevelopmental disorders that share abnormalities in 3 domains: language development, social interaction, and motor behavior with stereotypies and restricted interests. In this chapter, the term ASD encompasses classic childhood autism as originally described by Kanner,¹ Asperger syndrome, and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified. The signs and symptoms of ASD can usually be recognized before age 3 years,² although recent evidence of an early, but slow, loss of skills in about three quarters of the infants who develop ASD is observed by 12 months.³ Later, some individuals with ASD experience regression of language or behavior (autistic regression), a phenomenon that has been hypothesized to be related to epilepsy or epileptic discharges on the electroencephalogram (EEG).⁴ The possibility that subclinical epileptiform discharges can contribute to the spectrum of disability in ASD or lead to regression of language or social skills, suggests that the brains of individuals with autism are hyperexcitable.

Clinical aspects of seizures and epilepsy within the autism spectrum have been reviewed in detail.^5–9 Up to 30% of individuals with ASD have epilepsy, and ASD is present in about 30% of patients with epilepsy, though these numbers are approximate due to historical differences in the definition of each condition and to different study methodologies.¹⁰ Risk factors for epilepsy in ASD include mental retardation, motor impairment, symptomatic etiology, and seizure onset either early in life (before 5 years of age) or in adolescence.⁹ However, the neurobiology of ASD as well as the mechanisms responsible for cellular hyperexcitability in ASD are not well understood and likely involve the interplay of genetic, epigenetic, and environmental contributions.^11–14

There are several possible relationships between brain development, epilepsy and ASD (Figure 1).¹⁵; First, ASD and epilepsy might be distinct conditions with no causal relationship; however, this possibility is unlikely in view of the high co-occurrence rate (30%) between the two disorders. Second, a common neurobiological antecedent (e.g., structural or developmental lesions, genetic susceptibilities, and/or environmental insults) might lead to abnormal brain development that results in both epilepsy and ASD. Third, epilepsy could lead to autistic behavior or conversely, abnormal brain circuitry underlying ASD could predispose the brain to seizures. The second and third possibilities are not mutually exclusive, leading to the hypothesis that mechanisms of epilepsy and ASD are interdependent and that targeted therapies for one condition could ameliorate the impact or severity of the other, as will be discussed in more depth below. The possibility that common developmental mechanisms of epilepsy and ASD exist arises from observations that both disorders, though etiologically heterogeneous, involve abnormal brain plasticity, i.e., “dysplasticity” or the ability of neural circuits to function normally with regard to cognitive and social function.¹³

Figure 1

Possible relationships between brain development, epilepsy and autism spectrum disorders (ASD). (A) ASD and epilepsy might be distinct conditions with no causal relationship. This possibility is not likely due to the high comorbidity of these two disorders. (more...)

The etiologies of ASD are diverse and can be either idiopathic (non-syndromic) or secondary to an identifiable, underlying medical or genetic disorder (syndromic). The risk of epilepsy is increased in both idiopathic and syndromic forms of ASD, suggesting that there might be common pathophysiological alterations that decrease seizure threshold. Specific medical or genetic/genomic abnormalities have been identified in approximately 20% of ASD cases, though one study reports a 40% diagnostic yield.¹⁶ In the future, the category of “idiopathic” autism might disappear as the molecular and genetic bases of ASD disorder become more fully defined. For now, the existence of known etiologies permits investigation into molecular and physiological aspects of brain function that lead to autistic behaviors.¹⁷ Understanding the pathophysiological mechanisms of increased seizure susceptibility is facilitated by examination of genetic mutations leading to ASD. So far, the results of these studies are weighted toward defects in postsynaptic function and subcellular signaling.^{18, 19}

While much of idiopathic ASD is likely to be multigenic with complex genetics, a small but increasing proportion of ASD has been identified with specific gene mutations; some single gene defects are associated with both ASD and seizures.²⁰ Examples include FXS, caused by mutation of the fragile X mental retardation 1 (FMR1) gene, and tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC), due to mutation of the TSC1 or TSC2 genes involved in the control of cell growth and differentiation. Other novel mutations with concurrent ASD and epilepsy are rapidly appearing in the literature and are reviewed in detail in elsewhere.¹³ Several of these mutations involve genes regulating proteins critical for synapse development (e.g., neuroligins and neurexins)²¹ or interneuron function (e.g., aristaless-related homeobox X-linked (ARX) gene mutations).²² Likewise, patients with Rett syndrome, a neurodevelopmental disorder with progressive deterioration of motor skills, language, cognition, and behavior (autism), have a high risk of developing epilepsy.²³ Rett syndrome is due to mutation in the gene encoding methyl-CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2), a transcriptional regulator of numerous genes. Whether genetic mutations associated with syndromic ASD converge on common mechanisms that lead to neuronal hyperexcitability and epilepsy remains to be established.

FRAGILE X SYNDROME

Pathophysiology

The Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor Theory for Fragile X Syndrome

Numerous animal models and electrophysiological studies have examined the pathogenesis of FXS and the synaptic dysfunction that underlies the hyperexcitability and epileptiform features associated with the disorder. A key advance in the understanding of the molecular basis of FXS was that mice lacking FMRP displayed enhanced long-term depression (LTD) in hippocampal neurons and that this LTD was dependent on protein synthesis.^{44, 45} LTD is a form of synaptic plasticity that underlies learning and memory, so dysfunctional LTD in FXS could reflect the cognitive deficiencies seen in patients.⁴⁶ In this model, LTD could be inhibited by blocking the metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGluR5) with agents such as 2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)-pyridine (MPEP). Further, FMRP normally functions to downregulate the translation of proteins, such as Arc, that are involved with the internalization of AMPA receptors from the postsynaptic surface. Thus, in the absence of postsynaptic FMRP, stimulation of mGluR5, either by receptor agonists or presynaptic glutamate release, results in increased postsynaptic protein translation, leading to excess internalization of AMPA receptors and eventual weakening of synaptic transmission (Figure 2). By contrast, premutation-associated disorders (FXTAS, fragile X-associated primary ovarian insufficiency, neurodevelopmental involvement)⁴⁷ are not a consequence of FMRP deficiency, per se; rather, mounting evidence from both human and animal studies indicates that these premutation-specific disorders are caused by a direct toxic gain-of-function of the CGG-repeat FMR1 mRNA.^{48, 49} Furthermore, reductions in hippocampal volume, activation, and associated memory deficit, as well as reduced amygdala activation⁵⁰ and psychopathology⁵¹ appear much earlier in adulthood than do the symptoms of FXTAS, suggesting that the processes that ultimately will lead to FXTAS may be operating at a much earlier age. The reports of ADHD and ASD in young boys with the premutation also suggest a neurodevelopmental component to the premutation.³³ Recently, low-density hippocampal neuronal cultures from neonatal mice in the premutation range were shown to recapitulate neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative aspects described in vivo.⁵²

Figure 2

Possible mechanisms for seizures in fragile X syndrome (FXS). In the normal case (top), glutamate (Glut) activation of dendritic group I metabotropic receptors (especially mGluR5) enables intracellular gene transcription, leading to translation of dendritic (more...)

The mGluR model accounts for a number of the physical and behavioral features of FXS and predicts several aspects of the phenotype in various animal models, including enhanced seizure activity in an Fmr1 knockout mouse model with audiogenic seizures.^53–55 One consequence of enhanced protein synthesis in the absence of postsynaptic FMRP in the knockout mouse is increased internalization of AMPA receptors at the postsynaptic surface. The augmented AMPA receptor internalization (a facet of the increased LTD observed in the knockout mouse) no longer requires protein synthesis, suggesting that the elevated protein levels present in the postsynaptic compartment are sufficient to establish the enhanced LTD.⁵⁶

A potential caveat is that agents used in many animal studies, particularly those involving mGluR5 inhibitors (e.g., MPEP) or AMPA-receptor agonists, may have off-target effects that mimic the desired effect. To resolve this uncertainty, Fmr1 knockout mice were crossed with animals heterozygous for deletion of the Grm5 gene (50% reduction in mGluR5), thus mimicking drug-induced reductions in mGluR5 activity.⁵⁷ The resulting mice, Fmr1(−/Y)Grm5(+/−), displayed substantial correction of defects in experience and conditioning (i.e., ocular dominance plasticity and inhibitory avoidance extinction), normalization of dendritic spine density, a return to normal basal protein synthesis, attenuated susceptibility to audiogenic seizures, and rescue from early accelerated growth. These results clearly establish that the enhanced response to stimulation of the mGluR5 receptor plays a critical role in many of the phenotypic characteristics of FXS. Finally, it was shown that kindling promotes prolonged seizure activity and severe mossy fiber sprouting in the Fmr1 knockout mouse and that this behavior could be at least partially blocked using either N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-receptor or mGluR5 inhibitors.⁵⁸

Epileptogenic Mechanisms in Fragile X Syndrome

While the mGluR theory explains many of the phenotypic features of FXS, altered postsynaptic function arising from the absence of FMRP does not readily explain the central nervous system (CNS) hyperexcitability and seizure susceptibility associated with FXS. However, several recent studies have begun to reveal the connection. A recent investigation provides evidence that a voltage-gated inward current, I_mGluR(V), is the cellular basis for the epileptogenic behavior induced by activation of the mGluR5 receptor (Figure 2).^{59, 60} Specifically, stimulation of mGluR5 by the agonist dihydroxyphenylglycine in mouse hippocampal slices led to prolonged epileptiform discharges that lasted more than 1 hour after washout of the agonist. Moreover, this inward current could be suppressed by inhibitors of downstream signaling pathways that mediate group I mGluR-coupled translation (e.g., tyrosine kinase, extracellular signal-regulated kinase [ERK]1/2).^{61, 62} Remarkably, glutamate stimulation of glutaminergic synapses did not recapitulate this effect in wild-type mice, whereas I_mGluR(V) was activated in hippocampal preparations from Fmr1 knockout mice. The authors conclude that the induction of I_mGluR(V) serves as a form of synaptic plasticity to predispose to epileptogenesis. Thus, activation of mGluR5 at multiple synapses in the absence of FMRP translational control leads to heightened electrical excitability. The carrier of I_mGluR(V) is not yet known, though evidence supports one or more of the transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) channels that mediate Ca²⁺ entry in response to depletion of the endoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺ stores.⁶³

Evidence for a connection between the absence of Fmr1 and epileptogenesis in the knockout mice was extended in a study of neocortical circuits.⁶⁴ In agreement with prior observations,⁶⁰ the authors documented increased intrinsic excitability in excitatory neurons from Fmr1 knockout mice. However, there was an imbalance between this excitability and a relatively decreased excitatory drive present at fast-spiking inhibitory neurons. The net result was prolonged neocortical circuit activity (termed, UP state), induced by thalamic input. The heightened circuit activity, coupled with less synchronous network inhibition, was proposed as the underlying mechanism that leads to EEG abnormalities and epilepsy in FXS. Thus, the failure to properly modulate the mGluR5 response in the absence of FMRP results in neuronal hyperexcitability, mediated in part by the generation of a voltage-gated inward current, which in turn reduces excitatory input to inhibitory neurons and results in net increased excitability.⁶⁵

Role of GABA Receptors

The increased excitability of hippocampal and neocortical circuits in FXS, due to dysregulation of glutaminergic neurons, can in turn disrupt the normal actions of inhibitory GABAergic neurons. Downregulation of GABA_A receptor (GABR) subunits occurs at both the mRNA and protein levels - a situation that would further increase the excitatory character of limbic and cortical circuits.^{66, 67} Recently, it was demonstrated that in addition to reductions in GABA_A subunits, there is also lower expression of a number of genes involved in GABA metabolism, including gad1, gat1 and gat4, in the brain of both mouse and Drosophila models of FXS.⁶⁸

On a structural level, in the somatosensory cortex of the Fmr1 knockout mouse, inhibitory circuits were found to be reorganized accompanied by a reduction in the density of GABAergic interneurons.⁶⁹ A separate investigation of the function of GABAergic neurons in the subiculum revealed that tonic, but not phasic, GABA_A currents were downregulated in the Fmr1 knockout mouse relative to wild-type controls.⁷⁰ These results were associated with reductions in tonic GABA_A receptor subunits.

Several classes of pesticides of concern to human environmental health are known to interfere with GABA-mediated neurotransmission because they bind to GABA receptors and block their ability to mediate chloride fluxes. Organochlorine (OC) insecticides that possess polychloroalkane structures are known to bind to GABR in the mammalian brain and potently block their ability to conduct Cl-, with many having nanomolar affinity for their receptor binding site.¹⁴ OC insecticides that are currently being used in the United States include endosulfan, dicofol and lindane. Because of their chemical stability, global distribution from countries that continue to use these compounds, and their propensity to bioaccumulate, exposures to OC insecticides continue to be a concern for human health. Yet relatively little is known about their developmental neurotoxicity and the long-term consequences of low-dose exposures.⁷¹ An association between maternal residence near agricultural pesticide applications during key periods of gestation and the development of ASD has been documented.⁷² Children of mothers living closest to agricultural fields with the highest endosulfan and dicofol use had a risk factor for autism that was 6.1 times higher than that of mothers not living near agricultural fields. The fact that OC and several newer widely used insecticides impair GABR function suggest that deficiencies in the function of the GABAergic system in the Fmr1 knockout mouse would further upset the balance between excitatory and inhibitory function in the CNS, and may represent a valuable model for studying gene x environment interactions that cause hyper-excitation of the CNS.

TUBEROUS SCLEROSIS COMPLEX

Pathophysiology

The mTOR protein is a central regulator of cell growth and proliferation.¹⁰² Figure 3 depicts some of the molecules involved in this signal transduction pathway. Components of the mTOR pathway are present at synapses and play an important role in synaptic plasticity via regulation of local protein synthesis. Activation of either growth factor receptors of glutamate receptors sets into motion a subcellular signaling cascade that regulates cell growth and differentiation, mediated through the mTOR pathway that is in turn regulated by TSC1 and TSC2. A mutation in TSC1 or TSC2 prevents mTOR activation, leading to unbridled protein transcription and translation and hence cell growth and proliferation. Upstream regulation of the TSC1/2 complex and cellular signaling that can bypass TSC1/2 function (such as the ERK pathway¹⁰³) provides potential pathways for controlling this unchecked cell growth and epileptogenesis. Downstream from mTOR, a variety of kinases and translation factors serve as modulators of cell growth. Nevertheless, it is presently unclear how mTOR dysregulation leads directly to epilepsy or autism susceptibility.

Figure 3

Simpified signaling pathway in tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) with possible functional consequences that could lead to increased seizure susceptibility. In the normal situation (left), activation of receptors (R) for growth factors or glutamate leads (more...)

Animal models of TSC afford the opportunity to study pathophysiological consequences of TSC1 and TSC2 mutations. The Eker rat is a spontaneous germline mutation in which one TSC2 allele is inactivated. Eker rats demonstrate defective long-term potentiation (LTP), a form of synaptic plasticity involved in learning and memory; LTP is even more abnormal after seizures in Eker rats.^{104, 105} Other models have been created by knocking out of TSC1 or TSC2 in neurons or glia, allowing investigation of the structural, epileptic and cognitive effects. TSC2 knock outs have upregulation of the mTOR pathway and abnormal learning and memory.¹⁰⁶ Conditional TSC1 knock outs have abnormal hippocampal-dependent learning and memory as well as social behaviors, mimicking key autistic features; they demonstrate abnormal cellular architecture and progressive epilepsy as well.¹⁰⁷ Using such models, a variety of pathophysiological findings have been found including altered glutamate transporter, potassium channels, and gap junctions, all of which are consistent with enhanced excitability (and seizure activity).^{108, 109} Other factors that alter the excitation/inhibition balance in the TSC brain have also been documented in favor of excessive excitation, including specific abnormalities of glutamate receptors.¹¹⁰

CONCLUSION - IS THERE A CONVERGENT PATHWAY BETWEEN AUTISM AND EPILEPSY?

Returning to the question that opens this chapter, why is epilepsy so common in children with autism spectrum disorders? The heterogeneous etiologies of ASD and epilepsy make it unlikely that a single common mechanism explains seizure predisposition in both disorders, and recent genetic studies point to numerous, diverse gene mutations that have autism and epilepsy as joint sequelae.²⁰ Yet, hints about the pathogenesis of at least some forms of ASD are emerging. First, the majority of mutations focus on the synapse.^{17, 19} This association is not surprising, as neuronal excitability is governed by the function and dysfunction of synaptic elements such as receptors and their subtypes; neurotransmitters and their synthesis, metabolism and vesicular release; developmental regulation of cell adhesion; and the ratio of excitation to inhibition as a result of the above factors. Alterations in synaptic plasticity could underlie autistic and cognitive symptoms, especially if selected circuits are involved.

Second, as discussed here, dysfunction in subcellular signaling pathways of diverse conditions (e.g., FXS, TSC) may in fact have common convergence points contributing to pathophysiology as exemplified by mTOR dysregulation. In dendrites, mTOR is activated by stimulation of mGluR. The reported involvement of the mTOR pathway in FXS emphasizes a potential commonality between FXS and TSC, with a pathophysiological link to abnormal cellular signaling that could lead to ASD. In Fmr1 knockout mice, the mTOR pathway is upregulated, providing a functional link between mGluR overactivation and abnormal synaptic plasticity.¹¹⁸ Additional evidence for the mTOR pathway in autism and epilepsy comes from mutations in the tumor suppressor gene PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homolog on chromosome ten), which is involved in upstream regulation of mTOR by inhibiting the interaction of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and phosphoinositol 3,4,5-triphosphate (PIP3) (Figure 3). Conditional knockout of Pten in mice results in an increase in mTOR activation and clinical manifestations that include spontaneous seizures and ASD-like symptoms of anxiety and deficiencies in social interaction.¹¹⁹ Rapamycin treatment rescues all of these neurologic deficits.¹²⁰

Third, thinking beyond the synapse to neuronal function on a network scale, both epilepsy and autism involve abnormal synchrony of widespread systems of the brain.¹²¹ Alterations in functional connectivity between brain structures critical for language and social development are also pivotal in the synchronization that occurs in many epilepsy syndromes.¹²² Information about the functional pathology of such systems is just emerging. Unexpected mechanisms may evolve from genetic studies, involving proteins not expected to participate in the control of cognition or cellular excitability. Such molecules are already being linked to ASD and represent additional sites of intervention that give hope for the future.

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Disclosure: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.