Incidence and Mortality

Nonmelanoma skin cancer is the most commonly occurring cancer in the United States. BCC is the more common type of the two nonmelanoma types, accounting for about three-quarters of nonmelanoma skin cancers.[1] The incidence of nonmelanoma skin cancer appears to be increasing in some,[2] but not all [3] areas of the United States. Overall U.S. incidence rates have likely been increasing for a number of years.[4] At least some of this increase may be attributable to increasing skin cancer awareness and resulting increasing investigation and biopsy of skin lesions.

Precise estimation of the total numbers and incidence rate of nonmelanoma skin cancer is not possible because reporting to cancer registries is not required. However, based on Medicare fee-for-service data, which were then extrapolated to the U.S. population, an estimated 2,152,500 persons were treated for nonmelanoma skin cancers in 2006.[4] That number would exceed all other cases of cancer estimated by the American Cancer Society for that year, which was about 1.4 million.[5] Although the two types of nonmelanoma skin cancer are the most common of all malignancies, they account for less than 0.1% of patient deaths caused by cancer.

Risk Factors

Epidemiologic evidence suggests that exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation and the sensitivity of an individual’s skin to UV radiation are risk factors for skin cancer, though the type of exposure (i.e., high-intensity exposure and short-duration exposure vs. chronic exposure) and pattern of exposure (i.e., continuous pattern vs. intermittent pattern) may differ among the three main skin cancer types.[6-8] All three types of skin cancer are more likely to occur in individuals of light complexion who have had substantial exposure to sunlight, and skin cancers are more common in the southern latitudes of the Northern hemisphere. In addition, the immune system may play a role in pathogenesis of skin cancers.

Organ transplant recipients receiving immunosuppressive drugs are at an elevated risk of skin cancers, particularly SCC. Arsenic exposure also increases the risk of cutaneous SCC.[1] Serologic evidence from a population-based case-control study has shown a possible association between infection with the human papilloma virus (HPV) genus beta-species 1 and SCC.[9,10]

Related Summaries

Note: Other PDQ summaries containing information related to skin cancer include the following:

• Genetics of Skin Cancer
• Melanoma Treatment
• Skin Cancer Prevention
• Skin Cancer Screening
• Unusual Cancers of Childhood (skin cancer in children)

References

1. Reszko A, Aasi SZ, Wilson LD, et al.: Cancer of the skin. In: DeVita VT Jr, Lawrence TS, Rosenberg SA: Cancer: Principles and Practice of Oncology. 9th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2011, pp 1610-33.
2. Athas WF, Hunt WC, Key CR: Changes in nonmelanoma skin cancer incidence between 1977-1978 and 1998-1999 in Northcentral New Mexico. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 12 (10): 1105-8, 2003. [PubMed: 14578151]
3. Harris RB, Griffith K, Moon TE: Trends in the incidence of nonmelanoma skin cancers in southeastern Arizona, 1985-1996. J Am Acad Dermatol 45 (4): 528-36, 2001. [PubMed: 11568742]
4. Rogers HW, Weinstock MA, Harris AR, et al.: Incidence estimate of nonmelanoma skin cancer in the United States, 2006. Arch Dermatol 146 (3): 283-7, 2010. [PubMed: 20231499]
5. American Cancer Society: Cancer Facts and Figures 2006. Atlanta, Ga: American Cancer Society, 2006. Also available online. Last accessed February 9, 2015.
6. Koh HK: Cutaneous melanoma. N Engl J Med 325 (3): 171-82, 1991. [PubMed: 1805813]
7. Preston DS, Stern RS: Nonmelanoma cancers of the skin. N Engl J Med 327 (23): 1649-62, 1992. [PubMed: 1435901]
8. English DR, Armstrong BK, Kricker A, et al.: Case-control study of sun exposure and squamous cell carcinoma of the skin. Int J Cancer 77 (3): 347-53, 1998. [PubMed: 9663594]
9. Karagas MR, Nelson HH, Sehr P, et al.: Human papillomavirus infection and incidence of squamous cell and basal cell carcinomas of the skin. J Natl Cancer Inst 98 (6): 389-95, 2006. [PubMed: 16537831]
10. Patel AS, Karagas MR, Perry AE, et al.: Exposure profiles and human papillomavirus infection in skin cancer: an analysis of 25 genus beta-types in a population-based study. J Invest Dermatol 128 (12): 2888-93, 2008. [PMC free article: PMC2705138] [PubMed: 18548109]

Basal Cell Carcinoma

BCC is at least three times more common than SCC in nonimmunocompromised patients. It usually occurs on sun-exposed areas of skin, and the nose is the most frequent site. Although there are many different clinical presentations for BCC, the most characteristic type is the asymptomatic nodular or nodular ulcerative lesion that is elevated from the surrounding skin, has a pearly quality, and contains telangiectatic vessels.

BCC has a tendency to be locally destructive. High-risk areas for tumor recurrence after initial treatment include the central face (e.g., periorbital region, eyelids, nasolabial fold, or nose-cheek angle), postauricular region, pinna, ear canal, forehead, and scalp.[3] A specific subtype of BCC is the morpheaform type. This subtype typically appears as a scar-like, firm plaque. Because of indistinct clinical tumor margins, the morpheaform type is difficult to treat adequately with traditional treatments.[4]

BCCs are composed of nonkeratinizing cells derived from the basal cell layer of the epidermis. They are slow growing and rarely metastasize. However, they can result in serious deforming damage locally if left untreated or if local recurrences cannot be completely excised. BCCs often have a characteristic mutation in the patched 1 tumor suppressor gene (PTCH1), although the mechanism of carcinogenesis is not clear.[1]

Squamous Cell Carcinoma

SCCs also tend to occur on sun-exposed portions of the skin, such as the ears, lower lip, and dorsa of the hands. However, SCCs that arise in areas of non–sun-exposed skin or that originate de novo on areas of sun-exposed skin are prognostically worse because they have a greater tendency to metastasize than those that occur on sun-exposed skin that develop from actinic keratosis. People with chronic sun damage, sites of prior burns, arsenic exposure, chronic cutaneous inflammation as seen in longstanding skin ulcers, and sites of previous x-ray therapy are predisposed to the development of SCC.[4]

SCCs are composed of keratinizing cells. These tumors are more aggressive than BCCs and have a range of growth, invasive, and metastatic potential. Prognosis is associated with the degree of differentiation, and tumor grade is reported as part of the staging system.[2] A four-grade system (G1–G4) is most common, but two- and three-grade systems may also be used. Mutations in the PTCH1 tumor suppressor gene have been reported in SCCs removed from patients with a prior history of multiple BCCs.[5]

SCC in situ (also called Bowen disease) is a noninvasive lesion. It may be difficult to distinguish it pathologically from a benign inflammatory process.[1] The risk of development into invasive SCC is low, reportedly in the 3% to 4% range.[6]

Actinic Keratosis

Actinic keratoses are potential precursors of SCC, but the rate of progression is extremely low, and the vast majority do not become SCCs. These typically red, scaly patches usually arise on areas of chronically sun-exposed skin and are likely to be found on the face and dorsal aspects of the hand.

References

1. Reszko A, Aasi SZ, Wilson LD, et al.: Cancer of the skin. In: DeVita VT Jr, Lawrence TS, Rosenberg SA: Cancer: Principles and Practice of Oncology. 9th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2011, pp 1610-33.
2. Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma and other cutaneous carcinomas. In: Edge SB, Byrd DR, Compton CC, et al., eds.: AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. 7th ed. New York, NY: Springer, 2010, pp 301–14.
3. Dubin N, Kopf AW: Multivariate risk score for recurrence of cutaneous basal cell carcinomas. Arch Dermatol 119 (5): 373-7, 1983. [PubMed: 6847215]
4. Wagner RF, Casciato DA: Skin cancers. In: Casciato DA, Lowitz BB, eds.: Manual of Clinical Oncology. 4th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott, Williams, and Wilkins, 2000, pp 336-373.
5. Ping XL, Ratner D, Zhang H, et al.: PTCH mutations in squamous cell carcinoma of the skin. J Invest Dermatol 116 (4): 614-6, 2001. [PubMed: 11286632]
6. Kao GF: Carcinoma arising in Bowen's disease. Arch Dermatol 122 (10): 1124-6, 1986. [PubMed: 3767398]

Staging for Cutaneous SCC and Other Cutaneous Carcinomas (Excluding Carcinoma of the Eyelid)

• Stage I for tumors measuring 2 cm or less in size.
• Stage II for tumors measuring more than 2 cm in size.

In instances where there is clinical concern about extension of the tumor into bone and radiologic evaluation has been performed (and is negative), these data may be included to support the stage I versus stage II designation. Tumors that are 2 cm or less in size can be upstaged to stage II if they contain two or more high-risk features.

Stage III patients are those with either of the following:

• Clinical, histologic, or radiologic evidence of one involved lymph node measuring 3 cm or less in size.
• Tumor extension into bone; namely, the maxilla, mandible, orbit, or temporal bone.

Stage IV patients are those with any of the following:

• Tumor with direct or perineural invasion of skull base or axial skeleton.
• Two or more involved lymph nodes.
• Single or multiple involved lymph nodes measuring more than 3 cm in size.
• Distant metastases.

Staging for Carcinomas of the Eyelid

The AJCC has designated staging by TNM classification.[2] The TNM classification is used to stage all cell types of eyelid carcinomas.

References

1. Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma and other cutaneous carcinomas. In: Edge SB, Byrd DR, Compton CC, et al., eds.: AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. 7th ed. New York, NY: Springer, 2010, pp 301–14.
2. Carcinoma of the Eyelid. In: Edge SB, Byrd DR, Compton CC, et al., eds.: AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. 7th ed. New York, NY: Springer, 2010, pp 523-6.

Treatment for Basal Cell Carcinoma of the Skin

Treatment options include the following:

1. Excision with margin evaluation.
2. Mohs micrographic surgery.
3. Radiation therapy.
4. Curettage and electrodesiccation.
5. Cryosurgery.
6. Photodynamic therapy.
7. Topical fluorouracil (5-FU).
8. Imiquimod topical therapy.
9. Carbon dioxide laser.

This traditional surgical treatment usually relies on surgical margins ranging from 3 mm to 10 mm, depending on the diameter of the tumor. Re-excision may be required if the surgical margin is found to be inadequate on permanent sectioning. For example, in one trial, 35 of 199 (18%) primary BCCs were incompletely excised by the initial surgery and underwent a re-excision.[3] In addition, many laboratories examine only a small fraction of the total tumor margin pathologically. Therefore, the declaration of tumor-free margins can be subject to sampling error.[4]

Excision has been compared in randomized trials to radiation therapy, Mohs micrographic surgery, photodynamic therapy (PDT), and cryosurgery:

• In a single-center trial, 360 patients with facial BCCs less than 4 cm in diameter were randomly assigned to excision or to radiation therapy (55% interstitial brachytherapy, 33% contact radiation therapy, and 12% conventional external-beam radiation therapy [EBRT]).[5] Excisional margins, assessed during surgery by frozen section during the procedure in 91% of cases, had to be at least 2 mm, with re-excision if necessary. Thirteen patients were not treated and were dropped from the analysis.
  At 4 years (mean follow-up of 41 months), the actuarial failure rates (confirmed persistent or recurrent tumor) were 0.7% and 7.5% in the surgery and radiation therapy arms, respectively (P = .003). The cosmetic results were also rated as better after surgery by both patients and dermatologists, and also by three independent judges.[6] At 4 years, 87% of surgery patients rated cosmesis as good versus 69% of radiation therapy patients.[6][Level of evidence: 1iiDii]
• In a two-center, intent-to-treat analysis, 374 patients with 408 primary facial BCCs were randomly assigned to receive either surgical excision or Mohs micrographic surgery with at least a 3-mm margin around the visible tumor until there were no positive margins in either case.[3]
  After 30 months of follow-up, the recurrence rate was 5 out of 171 tumors (3%) in the excision group and 3 out of 160 (2%) in the Mohs micrographic surgery group (absolute difference = 1%; 95% confidence interval [CI], -2.5%–+3.7%; P = .724). There was no difference in complication rates, and overall cosmetic outcomes were similar. Total operative costs were nearly twice as high in the Mohs group (405.79 Euros vs. 216.86 Euros (P < .001).[3][Level of evidence 1iiDii]
• In a multicenter, randomized trial, 101 adults with previously untreated nodular skin BCCs, excluding lesions of the midface, orbital areas, and ears, were treated with either excision (at least 5-mm margins) or PDT using topical methyl aminolevulinate cream (160 mg/g) followed by red-light exposure (wavelength 570–670 nm, 75 J/cm²) twice, 7 days apart.[7] A per-protocol–per-lesion analysis was performed on the 97 patients who had an excision or at least one cycle of PDT.
  At 3 months, the complete response (CR) rate in the surgery group was 51 out of 52 lesions (98%) versus 48 out of 53 lesions (91%) in the PDT group (P = .25). CR rates assessed at 12 months were 96% versus 83% (P = .15).[7][Level of evidence: 1iiDiv] The investigators interpreted the results as noninferiority of PDT, but the study may have been underpowered. Both the investigators and the patients, however, rated the cosmetic results as either excellent or good in a higher proportion of PDT treatments at each time point of follow-up. At 12 months, patient ratings of excellent or good were 98% versus 84% (P = .03) and investigator ratings were 79% versus 38% (P = .001).
• In a randomized, single-center trial, 96 primary BCCs (patient number unclear) less than 2 cm in diameter involving the head and neck area were randomly assigned to excision with a 3-mm safe margin versus cryosurgery (i.e., curettage plus two freeze-thaw cycles by liquid nitrogen spray gun).[8]
  At 1 year, there were no recurrences in the excision group versus three in the cryosurgery group (P = NS), but this is a very short follow-up time. Patients and five independent professionals who were blinded to the treatment arm rated the cosmetic outcomes. Their overall assessments favored excision.[8][Level of evidence 1iiDiv]

Mohs micrographic surgery is a specialized technique used with the intent to achieve the narrowest margins necessary to avoid tumor recurrence, while maximally preserving cosmesis. It is best suited to management of tumors in cosmetically sensitive areas or for tumors that have recurred after initial excision (e.g., eyelid periorbital area, nasolabial fold, nose-cheek angle, posterior cheek sulcus, pinna, ear canal, forehead, scalp, fingers, and genitalia).[9,10] It is also often used to treat tumors with poorly defined clinical borders.

Mohs micrographic surgery requires special training. The tumor is microscopically delineated, with serial radial resection, until it is completely removed as assessed with real-time frozen sections. Noncontrolled case series suggested that the disease control rates were superior to other treatment methods for BCC.[9,11,12] However, as noted in the section on excision, the disease control rate was not clearly better when directly compared to surgical excision of facial BCCs in a randomized trial of primary BCCs.

Radiation therapy is particularly useful in the management of patients with primary lesions that would otherwise require difficult or extensive surgery (e.g., nose or ears).[13] Radiation therapy eliminates the need for skin grafting when surgery would result in an extensive defect. Cosmetic results are generally good, with a small amount of hypopigmentation or telangiectasia in the treatment port. Radiation therapy can also be used for lesions that recur after a primary surgical approach.[14] Radiation therapy is avoided in patients with conditions that predispose them to radiation-induced cancers, such as xeroderma pigmentosum or basal cell nevus syndrome.

As noted above, radiation therapy has been compared to excision in a randomized trial that showed better response and cosmesis associated with surgery.[5,6]

In a single-center, randomized trial, radiation was superior to cryotherapy in local control at 2 years in 93 patients with primary BCCs.[15] Patients were randomly assigned to receive either EBRT (130 kV x-rays, dosimetry depending upon lesion size) or cryotherapy (two freeze-thaw cycles with liquid nitrogen by spray gun). Patients with lesions on the nose or ear were excluded, since the investigators felt that electron beam therapy is the treatment of choice in these locations. By 1 year, the recurrence rates in the radiation and cryotherapy arms were 4% and 39%, respectively, in a per-protocol analysis. The investigators did not perform a statistical analysis, but the authors of a systematic literature review calculated a relative risk of 0.11 in favor of radiation (95% CI, 0.03–0.43).[1][Level of evidence 1iiDiv]

This procedure is also sometimes called electrosurgery. It is a widely employed method for removing primary BCCs, especially superficial lesions of the neck, trunk, and extremities that are considered to be at low risk for recurrence. A sharp curette is used to scrape away the tumor down to its base, followed by electrodesiccation of the lesion base. Although it is a quick method for destroying the tumor, the adequacy of treatment cannot be assessed immediately since the surgeon cannot visually detect the depth of microscopic tumor invasion.

A Cochrane Collaboration systematic review found no randomized trials comparing this treatment method with other approaches.[1] In a large, single-center case series of 2,314 previously untreated BCCs managed at a major skin cancer unit, the 5-year recurrence rate of BCCs of the neck, trunk, and extremities was 3.3%. However, rates increased substantially for tumors larger than 6 mm in diameter at other anatomic sites.[16][Level of evidence 3iiiDii]

Cryosurgery may be considered for patients with small, clinically well-defined primary tumors. It is infrequently used for the management of BCC, but may be useful for patients with medical conditions that preclude other types of surgery.

Contraindications include abnormal cold tolerance, cryoglobulinemia, cryofibrinogenemia, Raynaud disease (in the case of lesions on hands and feet), and platelet deficiency disorders. Additional contraindications to cryosurgery include tumors of the scalp, ala nasi, nasolabial fold, tragus, postauricular sulcus, free eyelid margin, upper lip vermillion border, lower legs, and tumors near nerves. Caution should also be used before treating nodular ulcerative neoplasia more than 3 cm in diameter, carcinomas fixed to the underlying bone or cartilage, tumors situated on the lateral margins of the fingers and at the ulnar fossa of the elbow, or recurrent carcinomas following surgical excision.

Edema is common following treatment, especially around the periorbital region, temple, and forehead. Treated tumors usually exude necrotic material after which an eschar forms and persists for about 4 weeks. Permanent pigment loss at the treatment site is unavoidable, so the treatment is not well suited to dark-skinned patients. Atrophy and hypertrophic scarring have been reported as well as instances of motor and sensory neuropathy.

As noted in the section above on radiation therapy, a small 93-patient trial comparing cryosurgery to radiation therapy, with only 1 year of follow-up, showed a statistically significant higher recurrence rate with cryosurgery than radiation (39% vs. 4%).[15]

In a small, single-center, randomized study, 88 patients were assigned to either cryosurgery in two freeze-thaw cycles or PDT using delta-aminolevulinic acid as the photosensitizing agent and 635 nm wavelength light with 60 J/cm² energy delivered by Nd:YAG laser versus cryosurgery in two freeze-thaw cycles.[17] Overall clinical efficacy was similar in evaluable lesions at 1 year (5/39 recurrences for cryosurgery vs. 2/44 recurrences for PDT), but more re-treatments were needed with PDT to achieve complete responses.[17][Level of evidence 1iiD] Cosmetic outcomes favored PDT (93% good or excellent after PDT vs. 54% after cryosurgery, P < .001). In another randomized study of 118 patients, reported in abstract form only, cryosurgery was compared with PDT with methyl aminolevulinic acid.[18,19] Tumor control rates at 3 years were similar (74%), but cosmetic outcomes were better in the PDT group. These cryosurgery-PDT comparisons were reported on a per-protocol basis rather than an intent-to-treat basis.[18,19][Level of evidence 1iiDiv]

Photodynamic therapy with photosensitizers is used in the management of a wide spectrum of superficial epithelial tumors.[20] A topical photosensitizing agent such as 5-aminolevulinic acid or methyl aminolevulinate is applied to the tumor, followed by exposure to a specific wavelength of light (whether laser or broad band), depending upon the absorption characteristics of the photosensitizer. In the case of multiple BCCs, short-acting systemic (intravenous) photosensitizers such as verteporfin have been used investigationally.[21] Upon light activation, the photosensitizer reacts with oxygen in the tissue to form singlet oxygen species, resulting in local cell destruction.

In case series, PDT has been associated with high initial CR rates. However, substantial regrowth rates of up to 50% have been reported with long-term follow-up.[20] A randomized trial of PDT versus excision is summarized in the section on simple excision above.[7] Two small trials, one reported in abstract form only, comparing PDT with cryosurgery are summarized in the cryosurgery section above, showing similar antitumor efficacy but better cosmesis with PDT.

Topical 5-FU, as a 5% cream, may be useful in specific limited circumstances. It is a Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved treatment for superficial BCCs in patients for whom conventional methods are impractical, such as individuals with multiple lesions or difficult treatment sites. Safety and efficacy in other indications have not been established.[22,23][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] Given the superficial nature of its effects, nonvisible dermal involvement may persist, giving a false impression of treatment success. In addition, the brisk accompanying inflammatory reaction may cause substantial skin toxicity and discomfort in a large proportion of patients.

Imiquimod is an agonist for the toll-like receptor 7 and/or 8, inducing a helper T-cell cytokine cascade and interferon production. It purportedly acts as an immunomodulator. It is available as a 5% cream and is used in schedules ranging from twice weekly to twice daily over 5 to 15 weeks. Most of the experience is limited to case series of BCCs that are less than 2 cm² in area and that are not in high-risk locations (i.e., within 1 cm of the hairline, eyes, nose, mouth, ear; or in the anogenital, hand, or foot regions).[23] Follow-up times have also been generally short. Reported CR rates vary widely, from about 40% to 100%.[23][Level of evidence 3iiiDiv]

There have been a number of randomized trials of imiquimod.[24-29] However, the designs of all of them make interpretation of long-term efficacy impossible. Most were industry-sponsored dose-finding studies, with small numbers of patients on any given regimen; and patients were only followed for 6 to 12 weeks, with excision at that time to determine histologic response.[Level of evidence 1iDiv] Therefore, although imiquimod is an FDA-approved treatment for superficial BCCs, some investigators in the field do not recommend it for initial monotherapy for BCC; some reserve it for patients with small lesions in low-risk sites who cannot undergo treatment with more established therapies.

This method is used very infrequently in the management of BCC because of the difficulty in controlling tumor margins.[30] Few clinicians have extensive experience with the technique for BCC treatment. There are no randomized trials comparing it with other modalities.

Treatment for Recurrent Basal Cell Carcinoma of the Skin

After treatment for BCC, patients should be followed clinically and examined regularly. Most recurrences occur within 5 years, but as noted above, about 18% of recurrences are diagnosed beyond that point.[2] Patients who develop a primary BCC are also at increased risk of subsequent primary skin cancers because the susceptibility of their sun-damaged skin to additional cancers persists.[31-33] This effect is sometimes termed field carcinogenesis. Age at diagnosis of the first BCC (<65 years), red hair, and initial BCC on the upper extremities appear to be associated with higher risk of subsequent new BCCs.[34]

Mohs micrographic surgery is commonly used for local recurrences of BCC. In a separate group within a randomized trial comparing excision to Mohs micrographic surgery for primary BCCs, 204 recurrent BCCs were randomly assigned to excision versus Mohs micrographic surgery. The recurrence rates were 8 out of 102 patients and 2 out of 102 patients, respectively, after a mean follow-up of 2.08 years (P = NS).[3][Level of evidence 1iiDii] There were more postoperative complications, including wound infections, graft necrosis, or bleeding in the excision group than the Mohs surgery group (19% vs. 8%, P = .021). As with primary tumors, the operative costs associated with Mohs surgery were higher than with excision (489.06 Euros vs. 323.49 Euros [P = .001]).

Treatment for Metastatic Basal Cell Carcinoma (or Advanced Disease Untreatable by Local Modalities)

Metastatic and far-advanced BCC is rare, and reports of systemic therapy are limited to case reports and very small case series with tumor response as the endpoint.[35][Level of evidence 3iiiDiv] Cisplatin, alone or in combination with other drugs, is the most commonly reported systemic therapy and appears to be associated with the best tumor-response rates.[36,37] A variety of other agents have been reported but have low-associated response rates, including cyclophosphamide, vinblastine, 5-FU, methotrexate, and doxorubicin.[36]

Since there is no standard therapy, clinical trials are appropriate if available. Because BCCs often exhibit constitutive activation of the Hedgehog/PTCH1-signaling pathway, Hedgehog pathway inhibitors are under investigation.[38] An orally administered Hedgehog pathway inhibitor (GDC-0449) has produced objective responses in patients with advanced or metastatic sporadic BCC,[39] and another topical inhibitor has produced objective responses in patients with nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome.[40][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv]

Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI website.

Current Clinical Trials

Check the list of NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with basal cell carcinoma of the skin. The list of clinical trials can be further narrowed by location, drug, intervention, and other criteria.

General information about clinical trials is also available from the NCI website.

References

1. Bath-Hextall FJ, Perkins W, Bong J, et al.: Interventions for basal cell carcinoma of the skin. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (1): CD003412, 2007. [PubMed: 17253489]
2. Rowe DE, Carroll RJ, Day CL Jr: Long-term recurrence rates in previously untreated (primary) basal cell carcinoma: implications for patient follow-up. J Dermatol Surg Oncol 15 (3): 315-28, 1989. [PubMed: 2646336]
3. Smeets NW, Krekels GA, Ostertag JU, et al.: Surgical excision vs Mohs' micrographic surgery for basal-cell carcinoma of the face: randomised controlled trial. Lancet 364 (9447): 1766-72, 2004 Nov 13-19. [PubMed: 15541449]
4. Abide JM, Nahai F, Bennett RG: The meaning of surgical margins. Plast Reconstr Surg 73 (3): 492-7, 1984. [PubMed: 6701225]
5. Avril MF, Auperin A, Margulis A, et al.: Basal cell carcinoma of the face: surgery or radiotherapy? Results of a randomized study. Br J Cancer 76 (1): 100-6, 1997. [PMC free article: PMC2223779] [PubMed: 9218740]
6. Petit JY, Avril MF, Margulis A, et al.: Evaluation of cosmetic results of a randomized trial comparing surgery and radiotherapy in the treatment of basal cell carcinoma of the face. Plast Reconstr Surg 105 (7): 2544-51, 2000. [PubMed: 10845311]
7. Rhodes LE, de Rie M, Enström Y, et al.: Photodynamic therapy using topical methyl aminolevulinate vs surgery for nodular basal cell carcinoma: results of a multicenter randomized prospective trial. Arch Dermatol 140 (1): 17-23, 2004. [PubMed: 14732655]
8. Thissen MR, Nieman FH, Ideler AH, et al.: Cosmetic results of cryosurgery versus surgical excision for primary uncomplicated basal cell carcinomas of the head and neck. Dermatol Surg 26 (8): 759-64, 2000. [PubMed: 10940063]
9. Thomas RM, Amonette RA: Mohs micrographic surgery. Am Fam Physician 37 (3): 135-42, 1988. [PubMed: 3348115]
10. Rowe DE, Carroll RJ, Day CL Jr: Mohs surgery is the treatment of choice for recurrent (previously treated) basal cell carcinoma. J Dermatol Surg Oncol 15 (4): 424-31, 1989. [PubMed: 2925988]
11. Malhotra R, Huilgol SC, Huynh NT, et al.: The Australian Mohs database, part II: periocular basal cell carcinoma outcome at 5-year follow-up. Ophthalmology 111 (4): 631-6, 2004. [PubMed: 15051193]
12. Thissen MR, Neumann MH, Schouten LJ: A systematic review of treatment modalities for primary basal cell carcinomas. Arch Dermatol 135 (10): 1177-83, 1999. [PubMed: 10522664]
13. Caccialanza M, Piccinno R, Moretti D, et al.: Radiotherapy of carcinomas of the skin overlying the cartilage of the nose: results in 405 lesions. Eur J Dermatol 13 (5): 462-5, 2003 Sep-Oct. [PubMed: 14693490]
14. Lovett RD, Perez CA, Shapiro SJ, et al.: External irradiation of epithelial skin cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 19 (2): 235-42, 1990. [PubMed: 2394605]
15. Hall VL, Leppard BJ, McGill J, et al.: Treatment of basal-cell carcinoma: comparison of radiotherapy and cryotherapy. Clin Radiol 37 (1): 33-4, 1986. [PubMed: 3514075]
16. Silverman MK, Kopf AW, Grin CM, et al.: Recurrence rates of treated basal cell carcinomas. Part 2: Curettage-electrodesiccation. J Dermatol Surg Oncol 17 (9): 720-6, 1991. [PubMed: 1820764]
17. Wang I, Bendsoe N, Klinteberg CA, et al.: Photodynamic therapy vs. cryosurgery of basal cell carcinomas: results of a phase III clinical trial. Br J Dermatol 144 (4): 832-40, 2001. [PubMed: 11298545]
18. Basset-Séguin N, Ibbotson S, Emtestam L, et al.: Photodynamic therapy using methyl aminolaevulinate is as efficacious as cryotherapy in basal cell carcinoma, with better cosmetic results. [Abstract] Br J Dermatol 149 (Suppl 64): A-P-66, 46, 2003.
19. Basset-Séguin N, Ibbotson S, Emtestam L, et al.: Methyl aminolaevulinate photodynamic therapy vs. cryotherapy in primary superficial basal cell carcinoma: results of a 36-month follow-up. [Abstract] Br J Dermatol 153 (Suppl 1): A-P-30, 29. 2005.
20. Hsi RA, Rosenthal DI, Glatstein E: Photodynamic therapy in the treatment of cancer: current state of the art. Drugs 57 (5): 725-34, 1999. [PubMed: 10353297]
21. Lui H, Hobbs L, Tope WD, et al.: Photodynamic therapy of multiple nonmelanoma skin cancers with verteporfin and red light-emitting diodes: two-year results evaluating tumor response and cosmetic outcomes. Arch Dermatol 140 (1): 26-32, 2004. [PubMed: 14732656]
22. Efudex® (fluorouracil) cream, 5% [package insert]. Aliso Viejo, Ca: Valeant Pharmaceuticals International, 2005. Available online. Last accessed October 25, 2013.
23. Love WE, Bernhard JD, Bordeaux JS: Topical imiquimod or fluorouracil therapy for basal and squamous cell carcinoma: a systematic review. Arch Dermatol 145 (12): 1431-8, 2009. [PubMed: 20026854]
24. Beutner KR, Geisse JK, Helman D, et al.: Therapeutic response of basal cell carcinoma to the immune response modifier imiquimod 5% cream. J Am Acad Dermatol 41 (6): 1002-7, 1999. [PubMed: 10570388]
25. Geisse JK, Rich P, Pandya A, et al.: Imiquimod 5% cream for the treatment of superficial basal cell carcinoma: a double-blind, randomized, vehicle-controlled study. J Am Acad Dermatol 47 (3): 390-8, 2002. [PubMed: 12196749]
26. Geisse J, Caro I, Lindholm J, et al.: Imiquimod 5% cream for the treatment of superficial basal cell carcinoma: results from two phase III, randomized, vehicle-controlled studies. J Am Acad Dermatol 50 (5): 722-33, 2004. [PubMed: 15097956]
27. Shumack S, Robinson J, Kossard S, et al.: Efficacy of topical 5% imiquimod cream for the treatment of nodular basal cell carcinoma: comparison of dosing regimens. Arch Dermatol 138 (9): 1165-71, 2002. [PubMed: 12224977]
28. Marks R, Gebauer K, Shumack S, et al.: Imiquimod 5% cream in the treatment of superficial basal cell carcinoma: results of a multicenter 6-week dose-response trial. J Am Acad Dermatol 44 (5): 807-13, 2001. [PubMed: 11312429]
29. Schulze HJ, Cribier B, Requena L, et al.: Imiquimod 5% cream for the treatment of superficial basal cell carcinoma: results from a randomized vehicle-controlled phase III study in Europe. Br J Dermatol 152 (5): 939-47, 2005. [PubMed: 15888150]
30. Reszko A, Aasi SZ, Wilson LD, et al.: Cancer of the skin. In: DeVita VT Jr, Lawrence TS, Rosenberg SA: Cancer: Principles and Practice of Oncology. 9th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2011, pp 1610-33.
31. Robinson JK: Risk of developing another basal cell carcinoma. A 5-year prospective study. Cancer 60 (1): 118-20, 1987. [PubMed: 3581025]
32. Karagas MR, Stukel TA, Greenberg ER, et al.: Risk of subsequent basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma of the skin among patients with prior skin cancer. Skin Cancer Prevention Study Group. JAMA 267 (24): 3305-10, 1992. [PubMed: 1597912]
33. Schinstine M, Goldman GD: Risk of synchronous and metachronous second nonmelanoma skin cancer when referred for Mohs micrographic surgery. J Am Acad Dermatol 44 (3): 497-9, 2001. [PubMed: 11209121]
34. Kiiski V, de Vries E, Flohil SC, et al.: Risk factors for single and multiple basal cell carcinomas. Arch Dermatol 146 (8): 848-55, 2010. [PubMed: 20713815]
35. Carneiro BA, Watkin WG, Mehta UK, et al.: Metastatic basal cell carcinoma: complete response to chemotherapy and associated pure red cell aplasia. Cancer Invest 24 (4): 396-400, 2006 Jun-Jul. [PubMed: 16777692]
36. Pfeiffer P, Hansen O, Rose C: Systemic cytotoxic therapy of basal cell carcinoma. A review of the literature. Eur J Cancer 26 (1): 73-7, 1990. [PubMed: 2138485]
37. Khandekar JD: Complete response of metastatic basal cell carcinoma to cisplatin chemotherapy: a report on two patients. Arch Dermatol 126 (12): 1660, 1990. [PubMed: 2256701]
38. Low JA, de Sauvage FJ: Clinical experience with Hedgehog pathway inhibitors. J Clin Oncol 28 (36): 5321-6, 2010. [PubMed: 21041712]
39. Von Hoff DD, LoRusso PM, Rudin CM, et al.: Inhibition of the hedgehog pathway in advanced basal-cell carcinoma. N Engl J Med 361 (12): 1164-72, 2009. [PubMed: 19726763]
40. Skvara H, Kalthoff F, Meingassner JG, et al.: Topical treatment of Basal cell carcinomas in nevoid Basal cell carcinoma syndrome with a smoothened inhibitor. J Invest Dermatol 131 (8): 1735-44, 2011. [PubMed: 21430703]

Treatment for Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Skin

Treatment options include the following:

1. Surgical excision with margin evaluation.
2. Mohs micrographic surgery.
3. Radiation therapy.
4. Curettage and electrodesiccation.
5. Cryosurgery.

Excision is probably the most common therapy for SCC.[4] This traditional surgical treatment usually relies on surgical margins ranging from 4 mm to 10 mm, depending on the diameter of the tumor and degree of differentiation. In a prospective case series of 141 SCCs, a 4-mm margin was adequate to encompass all subclinical microscopic tumor extension in more than 95% of well-differentiated tumors up to 19 mm in diameter. Wider margins of 6 mm to 10 mm were needed for larger or less-differentiated tumors or tumors in high-risk locations (e.g., scalp, ears, eyelids, nose, and lips).[5] Re-excision may be required if the surgical margin is found to be inadequate on permanent sectioning.

Mohs micrographic surgery is a specialized technique used to achieve the narrowest margins necessary to avoid tumor recurrence, while maximally preserving cosmesis. In case series, it has been associated with a lower local recurrence rate than the other local modalities,[6] but there are no randomized trials allowing direct comparison.[2] This surgery is best suited to the management of tumors in cosmetically sensitive areas or for tumors that have recurred after initial excision (e.g., eyelid periorbital area, nasolabial fold, nose-cheek angle, posterior cheek sulcus, pinna, ear canal, forehead, scalp, fingers, and genitalia).[7,8]

Mohs micrographic surgery is also often used to treat high-risk tumors with poorly defined clinical borders or with perineural invasion. The method requires special training. The tumor is microscopically delineated, with serial radial resection, until it is completely removed as assessed with real-time frozen sections. Nevertheless, since the technique removes tumor growing in contiguity and may miss noncontiguous in-transit cutaneous micrometastases, some practitioners remove an additional margin of skin in high-risk lesions even after the Mohs surgical procedure confirms uninvolved margins.[4][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv]

Radiation therapy is a logical treatment choice, particularly for patients with primary lesions requiring difficult or extensive surgery (e.g., nose, lip, or ears).[4,9] Radiation therapy eliminates the need for skin grafting when surgery would result in an extensive defect. Cosmetic results are generally good, with a small amount of hypopigmentation or telangiectasia in the treatment port. Radiation therapy can also be used for lesions that recur after a primary surgical approach.[10] Radiation therapy is avoided in patients with conditions that predispose them to radiation-induced cancers, such as xeroderma pigmentosum or basal cell nevus syndrome.

Although radiation therapy, with or without excision of the primary tumor, is used for histologically proven clinical lymph node metastases and has been associated with favorable disease-free survival rates, the retrospective nature of these case series makes it difficult to know the impact of nodal radiation on survival.[11,12][Level of evidence 3iiiDii]

This procedure is also sometimes called electrosurgery. A sharp curette is used to scrape the tumor down to its base, followed by electrodesiccation of the lesion base. Although it is a quick method for destroying the tumor, the adequacy of treatment cannot be assessed immediately since the surgeon cannot visually detect the depth of microscopic tumor invasion. Its use is limited to small (<1 cm), well-defined, and well-differentiated tumors.[4][Level of evidence: 3iiiDii]

Cryosurgery may be considered for patients with small, clinically well-defined primary tumors. It may be useful for patients with medical conditions that preclude other types of surgery. Contraindications include abnormal cold tolerance, cryoglobulinemia, cryofibrinogenemia, Raynaud disease (in the case of lesions on hands and feet), and platelet deficiency disorders. Additional contraindications to cryosurgery include tumors of the scalp, ala nasi, nasolabial fold, tragus, postauricular sulcus, free eyelid margin, upper lip vermillion border, lower legs, and tumors near nerves. Caution should also be used before treating nodular ulcerative neoplasia more than 3 cm in diameter, carcinomas fixed to the underlying bone or cartilage, tumors situated on the lateral margins of the fingers and at the ulnar fossa of the elbow, or recurrent carcinomas following surgical excision.

Edema is common following treatment, especially around the periorbital region, temple, and forehead. Treated tumors usually exude necrotic material after which an eschar forms and persists for about 4 weeks. Permanent pigment loss at the treatment site is unavoidable, so the treatment is not well suited to dark-skinned patients. Atrophy and hypertrophic scarring have been reported as well as instances of motor and sensory neuropathy.

The management of SCC in situ (Bowen disease) is similar to good-risk SCC. However, since it is noninvasive, surgical excision, including Mohs micrographic surgery, is usually not necessary. In addition, high complete response (CR) rates are achievable with photodynamic therapy (PDT). In a multicenter trial, 229 patients (209 evaluated in the per-protocol/per-lesion analysis) were randomly assigned to receive PDT (methyl aminolevulinate + 570–670 nm red light; n = 91), placebo cream with red light (n = 15); or treatment by physician choice (cryotherapy, n = 77; topical 5-fluorouracil, n = 26).[13] The sustained complete clinical response rates at 12 months were 80%, 67%, and 69% in the three respective active therapy groups (P = .04 for the comparison between PDT and the two combined physician-choice groups).[13][Level of evidence 1iiDii] The cosmetic results were best in the PDT group. (For comparison, the CR rates at 3 months for PDT and placebo/PDT were 93% and 21%, respectively.)

Treatment for Recurrent Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Skin

SCCs have definite metastatic potential, and patients should be followed regularly after initial treatment. Overall, local recurrence rates after treatment of primary SCCs ranged from about 3% to 23%, depending upon anatomic site.[6] About 58% of local recurrences manifest within 1 year, 83% within 3 years, and 95% within 5 years. The metastatic rate for primary tumors of sun-exposed skin is 5%; for tumors of the external ear, 9%; and for tumors of the lip, 14%. Metastases occur at an even higher rate for primary SCCs in scar carcinomas or in nonexposed areas of skin (about 38%).[6] About 69% of metastases are diagnosed within 1 year, 91% within 3 years, and 96% within 5 years. Tumors that are 2 cm or larger in diameter, 4 mm or greater in depth, or poorly differentiated have a relatively bad prognosis [14] and even higher local recurrence and metastasis rates than those listed.[6] Reported rates also vary by treatment modality, with the lowest rates associated with Mohs micrographic surgery, but at least some of the variation may be the result of patient selection factors; no randomized trials directly compare the various local treatment modalities.

Recurrent nonmetastatic SCCs are considered high risk and are generally treated with excision, often using Mohs micrographic surgery. Radiation therapy is used for lesions that cannot be completely resected.

As is the case with BCC, patients who develop a primary SCC are also at increased risk of subsequent primary skin cancers because the susceptibility of their sun-damaged skin to additional cancers persists.[15,16]

Treatment for Metastatic Squamous Cell Carcinoma (or Advanced Disease Untreatable by Local Modalities)

As is the case with BCC, metastatic and far-advanced SCC is unusual, and reports of systemic therapy are limited to case reports and very small case series with tumor response as the endpoint.[Level of evidence 3iiiDiv] Cisplatin-based regimens appear to be associated with high initial tumor response rates.[17,18] High response rates have also been reported with the use of 13-cis-retinoic acid plus interferon-alpha-2a.[19] Since there is no standard therapy, clinical trials are appropriate if available. Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI website.

Current Clinical Trials

Check the list of NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the skin. The list of clinical trials can be further narrowed by location, drug, intervention, and other criteria.

General information about clinical trials is also available from the NCI website.

References

1. Preston DS, Stern RS: Nonmelanoma cancers of the skin. N Engl J Med 327 (23): 1649-62, 1992. [PubMed: 1435901]
2. Lansbury L, Leonardi-Bee J, Perkins W, et al.: Interventions for non-metastatic squamous cell carcinoma of the skin. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (4): CD007869, 2010. [PubMed: 20393962]
3. Brewster AM, Lee JJ, Clayman GL, et al.: Randomized trial of adjuvant 13-cis-retinoic acid and interferon alfa for patients with aggressive skin squamous cell carcinoma. J Clin Oncol 25 (15): 1974-8, 2007. [PubMed: 17513803]
4. Motley R, Kersey P, Lawrence C, et al.: Multiprofessional guidelines for the management of the patient with primary cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma. Br J Dermatol 146 (1): 18-25, 2002. [PubMed: 11841362]
5. Brodland DG, Zitelli JA: Surgical margins for excision of primary cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma. J Am Acad Dermatol 27 (2 Pt 1): 241-8, 1992. [PubMed: 1430364]
6. Rowe DE, Carroll RJ, Day CL Jr: Prognostic factors for local recurrence, metastasis, and survival rates in squamous cell carcinoma of the skin, ear, and lip. Implications for treatment modality selection. J Am Acad Dermatol 26 (6): 976-90, 1992. [PubMed: 1607418]
7. Thomas RM, Amonette RA: Mohs micrographic surgery. Am Fam Physician 37 (3): 135-42, 1988. [PubMed: 3348115]
8. Rowe DE, Carroll RJ, Day CL Jr: Mohs surgery is the treatment of choice for recurrent (previously treated) basal cell carcinoma. J Dermatol Surg Oncol 15 (4): 424-31, 1989. [PubMed: 2925988]
9. Caccialanza M, Piccinno R, Moretti D, et al.: Radiotherapy of carcinomas of the skin overlying the cartilage of the nose: results in 405 lesions. Eur J Dermatol 13 (5): 462-5, 2003 Sep-Oct. [PubMed: 14693490]
10. Lovett RD, Perez CA, Shapiro SJ, et al.: External irradiation of epithelial skin cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 19 (2): 235-42, 1990. [PubMed: 2394605]
11. Shimm DS, Wilder RB: Radiation therapy for squamous cell carcinoma of the skin. Am J Clin Oncol 14 (5): 383-6, 1991. [PubMed: 1951174]
12. Veness MJ, Palme CE, Smith M, et al.: Cutaneous head and neck squamous cell carcinoma metastatic to cervical lymph nodes (nonparotid): a better outcome with surgery and adjuvant radiotherapy. Laryngoscope 113 (10): 1827-33, 2003. [PubMed: 14520114]
13. Morton C, Horn M, Leman J, et al.: Comparison of topical methyl aminolevulinate photodynamic therapy with cryotherapy or Fluorouracil for treatment of squamous cell carcinoma in situ: Results of a multicenter randomized trial. Arch Dermatol 142 (6): 729-35, 2006. [PubMed: 16785375]
14. Cherpelis BS, Marcusen C, Lang PG: Prognostic factors for metastasis in squamous cell carcinoma of the skin. Dermatol Surg 28 (3): 268-73, 2002. [PubMed: 11896781]
15. Karagas MR, Stukel TA, Greenberg ER, et al.: Risk of subsequent basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma of the skin among patients with prior skin cancer. Skin Cancer Prevention Study Group. JAMA 267 (24): 3305-10, 1992. [PubMed: 1597912]
16. Schinstine M, Goldman GD: Risk of synchronous and metachronous second nonmelanoma skin cancer when referred for Mohs micrographic surgery. J Am Acad Dermatol 44 (3): 497-9, 2001. [PubMed: 11209121]
17. Luxenberg MN, Guthrie TH Jr: Chemotherapy of basal cell and squamous cell carcinoma of the eyelids and periorbital tissues. Ophthalmology 93 (4): 504-10, 1986. [PubMed: 3703526]
18. Sadek H, Azli N, Wendling JL, et al.: Treatment of advanced squamous cell carcinoma of the skin with cisplatin, 5-fluorouracil, and bleomycin. Cancer 66 (8): 1692-6, 1990. [PubMed: 1698529]
19. Lippman SM, Parkinson DR, Itri LM, et al.: 13-cis-retinoic acid and interferon alpha-2a: effective combination therapy for advanced squamous cell carcinoma of the skin. J Natl Cancer Inst 84 (4): 235-41, 1992. [PubMed: 1734084]

Treatment for Actinic Keratosis

Treatment options include the following:

1. Topical agents:

   • Fluorouracil (5-FU).
   • Imiquimod cream.
   • Diclofenac sodium 3% gel.
   • Trichloroacetic acid.
2. Cryosurgery.
3. Curettage.
4. Dermabrasion.
5. Shave excision.
6. Photodynamic therapy.
7. Carbon dioxide laser.

Current Clinical Trials

Check the list of NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with actinic keratosis. The list of clinical trials can be further narrowed by location, drug, intervention, and other criteria.

General information about clinical trials is also available from the NCI website.

References

1. Picascia DD, Robinson JK: Actinic cheilitis: a review of the etiology, differential diagnosis, and treatment. J Am Acad Dermatol 17 (2 Pt 1): 255-64, 1987. [PubMed: 3305604]
2. Marks R, Rennie G, Selwood TS: Malignant transformation of solar keratoses to squamous cell carcinoma. Lancet 1 (8589): 795-7, 1988. [PubMed: 2895318]
3. Marks R, Foley P, Goodman G, et al.: Spontaneous remission of solar keratoses: the case for conservative management. Br J Dermatol 115 (6): 649-55, 1986. [PubMed: 3801305]
4. Jorizzo J, Collier A: Actinic keratosis. Waltham, Ma: UpToDate Inc, 2011. Available online. Last accessed October 25, 2013.

Purpose of This Summary

This PDQ cancer information summary for health professionals provides comprehensive, peer-reviewed, evidence-based information about the treatment of skin cancer. It is intended as a resource to inform and assist clinicians who care for cancer patients. It does not provide formal guidelines or recommendations for making health care decisions.

Reviewers and Updates

This summary is reviewed regularly and updated as necessary by the PDQ Adult Treatment Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of the National Cancer Institute (NCI). The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or the National Institutes of Health (NIH).

Board members review recently published articles each month to determine whether an article should:

• be discussed at a meeting,
• be cited with text, or
• replace or update an existing article that is already cited.

Changes to the summaries are made through a consensus process in which Board members evaluate the strength of the evidence in the published articles and determine how the article should be included in the summary.

The lead reviewers for Skin Cancer Treatment are:

• Russell S. Berman, MD (New York University School of Medicine)
• Scharukh Jalisi, MD, FACS (Boston University Medical Center)

Any comments or questions about the summary content should be submitted to Cancer.gov through the NCI website's Email Us. Do not contact the individual Board Members with questions or comments about the summaries. Board members will not respond to individual inquiries.

Levels of Evidence

Some of the reference citations in this summary are accompanied by a level-of-evidence designation. These designations are intended to help readers assess the strength of the evidence supporting the use of specific interventions or approaches. The PDQ Adult Treatment Editorial Board uses a formal evidence ranking system in developing its level-of-evidence designations.

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The preferred citation for this PDQ summary is:

National Cancer Institute: PDQ® Skin Cancer Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Date last modified <MM/DD/YYYY>. Available at: http://www.cancer.gov/types/skin/hp/skin-treatment-pdq. Accessed <MM/DD/YYYY>.

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