STRUCTURED INSECURITY: HOUSING SEGREGATION AND DISPLACEMENT

Having a safe, high-quality, and affordable place to live is an important component of a healthy life. This section reviews how housing conditions, locations, and federal underinvestment have increased racial, ethnic, and tribal health inequities and describes an effective federal-level intervention to help more people and families afford homes and improve well-being of adults and children alike. Housing location and neighborhood conditions also affect health, from factors such as multiresidence housing and housing density, to neighborhood violence and crime, to walkability and accessibility of green spaces, and proximity to supermarkets, public transportation options, and other integral community resources (NASEM, 2017).

On average, Americans spend more than 90 percent of their time indoors, in environments from schools to offices to homes (EPA, 2021). Physical conditions of housing, including home structure and design, can affect health through inadequate ventilation, lack of air conditioning or heating, and the infiltration of air pollution and noise. Biological and chemical factors, such as mold, allergens (e.g., dust mites), pests, lead, radon, and carbon monoxide, also affect health (NASEM, 2017, 2019b; Taylor, 2018). For example, mold and allergens can exacerbate asthma and other respiratory symptoms (CDC, 2022a; CDC and HUD, 2006; IOM, 2004). Insect and rodent pests can aggravate respiratory conditions and introduce other health risks (CDC and HUD, 2006). Radon exposure causes lung cancer. In homes with a lack of adequate ventilation, carbon monoxide can accumulate and cause fatalities. Particulate matter exacerbates respiratory and cardiovascular conditions (EPA, 2022b). Conditions of homes and surrounding areas were also associated with COVID-19 incidence and mortality, including factors such as lack of access to adequate plumbing, crowding, inadequate air circulation, air pollution, and lack of access to parks and health care services (Ahmad et al., 2020; Frumkin, 2021; Rollston and Galea, 2020). For each of these harmful living conditions, research has shown that low-income and racialized groups are disproportionately exposed (Hanna-Attisha et al., 2016; Jacobs, 2011; Tessum et al., 2021). Consideration of structure durability, efficiency, long-term maintenance, and reinvestment in home design and construction are also important factors (Department of Energy, n.d.; Gibson, 2017; Newport Partners and ARES Consulting, 2015).

Household lead is a particular issue for children. Exposure to this neurotoxin from old paint and water infrastructure slows child growth and development and damages the brain and central nervous system, influencing learning and academic achievement, behavior and attention span, hearing, and speech (CDC, 2022c). Lead poisoning prevention policies, such as the bans on lead in paint (in 1978), gasoline, and canned food and the federal Residential Lead-Based Paint Hazard Reduction Act of 1992,¹ are public health successes and have drastically reduced childhood lead exposure (NASEM, 2019b; Weitzman et al., 2013). However, lead poisoning continues to disproportionately affect racially and ethnically minoritized children, children from low-income families, and those living in older housing (CDC, 2021; Hanna-Attisha et al., 2016; Jacobs, 2011; Weitzman et al., 2013). The Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) is responsible for identifying lead paint hazards in HUD-assisted housing but has not completed a comprehensive evaluation of the Project-Based Rental Assistance Program to distinguish properties presenting the greatest risk to children under age 6 (GAO, 2020). According to the Government Accountability Office, about one in five such properties have at least one building from 1978 or earlier and are home to more than 138,000 children under age 6 (GAO, 2020); similarly, approximately 229,000 children under age 6 in HUD's voucher program live in units built before 1978 (GAO, 2021). Remediating lead paint is part of the Biden-Harris Lead Pipe and Paint Action Plan (The White House, 2021). Additionally, in 2023, HUD announced $165 million in grant opportunities for public housing agencies to evaluate and mitigate lead-based paint, among other threats to residents' health; additional grant money is available for state and local governments to reduce lead-based paint hazards in privately owned housing (HUD, 2023).

Segregation and Health

Redlining

The disparity in access to and quality of U.S. homes has been exacerbated by federal policies—past and present—that segregate neighborhoods, exposing specific communities to precarious health outcomes. For example, although redlining, an explicitly racist mortgage lending policy of the federal government from the 1930s to the 1960s, is now unlawful,² its legacy of structural racism is still observable today in patterns of neighborhood disinvestment and residential segregation by race and consequent effects on other social determinants of health (SDOH), such as intergenerational wealth accumulation (Bailey et al., 2017; Barber et al., 2022; Braveman et al., 2022; Williams et al., 2019). Differences in home values and ownership and credit scores by race and ethnicity endure in formerly redlined areas (Braveman et al., 2022). Furthermore, residential segregation is associated with increased rates of homicides and other crimes in disinvested Black and Latino/a neighborhoods, which then reinforce racialized punitive policing and community depletion (Bailey et al., 2017). Redlining and the norms, policies, and structures that sustained it also continue to adversely affect the natural environment and human health in the selective placement of mobile and stationary pollution sources, such as roads and traffic, rail lines, ports, and industrial facilities (Bailey et al., 2017). For example, studies have found historically redlined neighborhoods are consistently associated with modern air pollution levels (NO₂ and PM_2.5) (Lane et al., 2022) and with higher flood risk (Conzelmann et al., 2023; Katz, 2021). Additionally, a 2020 study of 108 U.S. cities found that a lack of tree canopy and extensive infrastructure amplified temperatures in historically redlined areas, such as parts of Denver, Colorado; Minneapolis, Minnesota; and Portland, Oregon (Hoffman et al., 2020). Redlining is associated with other negative health outcomes as well (Jadow et al., 2023; Lee et al., 2022). A meta-analysis and systematic review found the odds of a preterm birth were 41 percent higher in a historically redlined neighborhood than in a nonredlined neighborhood (95 percent CI: 1.05–1.88, p = 0.02) (Lee et al., 2022). Researchers found other health outcomes, such as gunshot injuries, heat-related illness, and multiple chronic conditions, including asthma and some cancers, were also associated with living in a historically redlined neighborhood (Lee et al., 2022). More recent research has shown that historic redlining practices continue to produce unhealthy food access options for low-income and racialized neighborhoods (Shaker et al., 2022).

Homeownership plays a significant role in wealth generation. As a system, redlining produced disinvested Black neighborhoods by denying access to credit while valuing and directing investment to White neighborhoods, which increased in appraisal value and concentrated wealth (“greenlining”) (Aaronson et al., 2021; Domonoske, 2016; Faber, 2020; Howell, 2006; Perry and Harshbarger, 2019; Rothstein, 2017; Szto, 2013). The systematic advantaging of high-income, predominately White communities continues in policies and practices by public and private actors, including through gentrification patterns that see an influx of residents with higher socioeconomic status in neighborhoods after reinvestment and development, usually accompanied by higher home values and rents. Although gentrification can provide economic benefits and improved neighborhood conditions, it can also displace the incumbent neighborhood residents and businesses; there is a role for government to reduce these risks (Dorazio, 2022; Hwang and Ding, 2020; Levy et al., 2006; NASEM, 2017; O'Regan, 2016; Rothstein, 2017; Smith et al., 2020; Zuk et al., 2015; Zuliaga, 2019). For example, gentrification is associated with more economic change in formerly redlined neighborhoods and also greater city-level economic inequality (Mitchell and Franco, 2018). See Chapter 3 for more information on wealth and homeownership and the connection to health.

Displacement and Health: Housing for American Indian and Alaska Native and Native Hawaiian People

Federally mandated and supported segregation and displacement have been uniquely harmful to AIAN individuals. Federal government actions encouraging settler colonialism through, in part, forcible removal of AIAN people from their traditional, ancestral lands caused intergenerational physical, spiritual, mental, emotional, economic, and environmental harms, including death and population loss (Hoss, 2019; NASEM, 2017). The United States has had five major federal Indian policy periods spanning from the early 1800s to the present day (see Chapter 2 for more information). The first of these was Removal and Reservation (1830–1886). The goal was to remove American Indians from their lands, starting on the east coast as more Europeans arrived. President Andrew Jackson used the Removal Act³ to buy lands in the west to remain under federal trust to move American Indians away from the European settlers. These became known as “reserved lands” or “reservations.” Today, 326 areas are held in reserve and 574 tribes are federally recognized (BIA, 2017; Schwartz, 2023). Some tribes have no reserved lands, and multiple tribes are sometimes assigned to the same land (Fitzpatrick, 2021). A study estimated the effects of this dispossession and found present-day land density and spread has been reduced almost 99 percent (Farrell et al., 2021). These predominantly rural reservations frequently have fewer resources and are far from the tribes' native lands, often undesirable and unfarmable, and in environments now more at risk for climate change hazards (Farrell et al., 2021; Maillacheruvu, 2022; Nikolaus et al., 2022). The built environment is often still lacking or subpar. These past federal policies affect contemporary SDOH for these populations, including the neighborhood and built environment (Miletić et al., 2022; NASEM, 2017; U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2018).

For example, housing is often inadequate and substandard, leaving portions of the trust obligation unfulfilled (NCAI, 2021; Pindus et al., 2017; U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2018). Reservations have both a lack of affordable housing and pervasive poor conditions within the existing housing stock (U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2018). As a report from the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights concluded, this is tied to inadequate federal funding for programs meant for AIAN people across the government (U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2018). This is echoed by the National Congress of American Indians, which finds that 40 percent of reservation housing is inadequate (NCAI, n.d.). Housing conditions vary regionally, but overcrowding is more common than among the nation as a whole, as are severe deficiencies in necessities, such as plumbing, water and sanitation, heating, electricity, and other utilities (NCAI, n.d.; Pindus et al., 2017; U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2018), putting AIAN people living in these conditions at risk of the health effects described early in this chapter.

The Native American Housing Assistance and Self-Determination Act of 1996⁴ is the main source of federal assistance for affordable, safe, accessible housing for AIAN and Native Hawaiian people. A bipartisan group of senators introduced the Native American Housing Assistance and Self-Determination Reauthorization Act of 2021⁵ to reauthorize the bill's programs through FY2032 (National Low Income Housing Coalition, 2021); the act was favorably passed out of the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs in February 2022 but has not yet been voted on by the full senate (Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, 2022). The act includes the Indian Housing Block Grant, a formula-based program that directly funds tribes (or tribally designated housing entities) to build, acquire, or rehabilitate affordable housing. It furthers tribal self-determination by providing direct funds to tribes and supporting them in developing housing programs based on community needs and priorities (U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2018). The grant provides funds that tribal governments can use to finance rental assistance for AIAN people living on tribal lands (CBPP, 2022b). However, grant funding has remained relatively flat since its inception and not kept pace with inflation or demand for housing, eroding tribes' buying power and limiting their ability to increase total housing available and maintain aging housing (Acosta, 2021; Pindus et al., 2017; U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2018) (see Figure 6-1).

FIGURE 6-1

Funding for the tribal housing program has less buying power now than when created: Amount of Indian Housing Block Grant funds appropriated, 1998–2020. NOTE: The increases in funding starting in fiscal year 2018 are largely from a pot of funding (more...)

The American Rescue Plan included $555 million for the Indian Housing Block Grant, half allocated through its traditional formula and half through a competitive grant process. The plan also included funds for the Indian Community Development Block Grant, which could be used for housing (Acosta, 2021). This is needed progress and in line with the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights recommendation that the federal government provide steady, direct funding to support housing, reauthorize the Native American Housing Assistance and Self-Determination Act of 1996, and increase appropriations to the Indian Housing Block Grant (U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2018).

Native Hawaiians were also dispossessed of their traditional land in the illegal annexation and colonization of Hawaii (Harvard Law Review, 2020; Perez, 2021a). The Hawaiian Homes Commission Act was signed in 1921 “to enable native Hawaiians to return to their lands in order to fully support self-sufficiency for native Hawaiians and the self-determination of native Hawaiians in the administration of this Act, and the preservation of the values, traditions, and culture of native Hawaiians.”⁶ The Hawaiian Homes Commission administers 200,000 acres of public land for homesteads for Native Hawaiians (defined as people having at least 50 percent Hawaiian blood); beneficiaries receive 99-year residential, agricultural, pastoral, or aquaculture leases for $1 per year (leases can be extended to 199 years) to help build generational wealth (Department of Hawaiian Home Lands, n.d.; Hiraishi, 2021). Despite the size of the land trust, less than a quarter of the acreage is being used for homesteads, with only approximately 10,000 lessees and more than 28,000 people on the waitlist (Andrade, 2022). Funding levels and land inventory have been deemed inadequate; the commission must provide new sites to waitlist applicants (including the cost of infrastructure development) and continue serving existing sites with utility maintenance (Andrade, 2022; Department of Hawaiian Home Lands, n.d.; Hiraishi, 2021). The Department of Hawaiian Home Lands estimated it would cost $6 billion and take more than 180 years to clear the wait list at the current level of funding (Burnett, 2021). Many people on the waitlist are homeless, and people can wait decades to receive a lease (Consillio, 2022; Perez, 2021b). Additionally, federal government actions involving excess property have sometimes undermined the land debt repayment (Andrade, 2022; Perez, 2021b).

Federal Rental Assistance

Affordability is an important component of housing. Access to housing that families can afford is associated with positive health outcomes; without it, low-income people may live in substandard, unsafe housing with fewer community assets and have fewer resources available for other needs, like health care, food, and transportation (Braveman et al., 2011; Los Angeles County Department of Public Health, 2015; Maqbool et al., 2015; NASEM, 2019b). However, housing policy decisions are mainly made at the state and local levels, rather than the federal level (Cho, 2022). For example, zoning is largely set at the local level (this determines land use and density at which residential properties can be built), and housing development is done in large part by the private sector; these factors directly impact residents' ability to access homes and homeownership. Renters are more likely to be racially and ethnically minoritized and have lower income than homeowners; housing costs are more likely to burden⁷ racially and ethnically minoritized renters, especially Black and Latino/a households, than White renters and those with lower income than those with higher household incomes (CBPP, 2022a; JCHS, 2022). The federal government's role in housing policy is in four primary areas: (1) provides rental assistance that helps low-income people afford modest housing, (2) provides funding sources to build below-market rental housing, (3) insures mortgages for homeownership, and (4) acts as the largest source of funding for homeless assistance and services (Cho, 2022).

A robust and growing evidence base exists on the health effects of federal policies related to rental assistance, neighborhoods, and housing (see for example, Sard et al., 2018). An important body of knowledge draws on the HUD Moving to Opportunity (MTO) research demonstration, which began 1994–1998 and has continued to follow low-income families moving from extremely poor neighborhoods to “neighborhoods of opportunity” (HUD, n.d.-b). The 4,600 families in the study were randomly assigned to one of three arms: one group offered “a housing voucher that could only be used to move to a low-poverty neighborhood, a group offered a traditional Section 8 housing voucher, and a control group” (NBER, n.d.). Families were followed 2004–2007 and 2008–2010. Longer-term findings included better physical and mental health status for adults who moved to lower-poverty neighborhoods and better mental health for female youth. These findings echoed the earlier results, which had also included a large decrease in violent-crime arrests (NBER, n.d.). In a follow-up of the MTO participants, Chetty and colleagues found the most noteworthy effects in children who were moved to lower-poverty neighborhoods in early childhood. They found

that moving a child out of public housing to a low-poverty area when young (at age eight on average) using an MTO-type experimental voucher will increase the child's total lifetime earnings by about $302,000. This is equivalent to a gain of $99,000 per child moved in present value at age eight, discounting future earnings at a 3 percent interest rate. . . The additional tax revenue obtained from these children will itself offset the incremental cost of the experimental voucher treatment relative to providing public housing. (Chetty et al., 2016, p. 859–860)

The work of Chetty and colleagues (2018) also shows that the level of poverty in a close-by neighborhood (less than 0.6 mile radius) has causal effects on a child's outcomes, so the design of housing vouchers is extremely important for housing stability and getting to and remaining in a neighborhood that will improve a child's economic outcomes in later life.

Two federal agencies are involved with federal rental assistance. The Department of Agriculture (USDA) administers the USDA Section 521 Rural Rental Assistance program. HUD administers three major programs, including housing choice vouchers,⁸ public housing,⁹ and Section 8 project-based rental assistance¹⁰ (Mazzara, 2017); these three programs aid approximately 84 percent of those receiving federal rental assistance (CBPP, 2022b). Other HUD programs serve specific populations, such as those with disabilities, living with HIV/AIDS, or experiencing homelessness (Mazzara, 2017).

Approximately 10 million people receive federal rental assistance (CBPP, 2022c). About 5 million people use housing choice vouchers, the majority of whom are Black or Latino (CBPP, 2021). Federal rental assistance programs provided almost $49 billion in 2020 (CBPP, 2022c), and the fiscal year (FY) 2023 budget proposed funding to expand to 200,000 more families, prioritizing those who are homeless or escaping domestic violence (HUD, 2022). However, room for improvement remains in the federal government's role in rental assistance; funding is discretionary and historically has been severely underfunded relative to how many people are eligible (Cho, 2022; HUD, 2022). For example, because of limited funding, only one in four low-income renter households who qualify receive assistance (CBPP, 2022b; Cho, 2022). More than half of households in need are headed by racially and ethnically minoritized people (Fischer et al., 2021). Furthermore, due to limited program funding creating long waitlists, households awarded a housing choice voucher often wait close to 2.5 years to receive it, placing them at risk for housing instability during that time (Acosta and Gartland, 2021). Black households make up a disproportionate share of voucher waitlists, as Black people are among the minoritized communities disproportionately likely to experience housing insecurity and negative economic outcomes because of discriminatory housing and economic policies that have limited opportunities across generations (Acosta and Gartland, 2021). Tenant-based voucher programs also differ in eligibility criteria, such as income level (determined by the administering public housing agency and based on median income of the county or metropolitan area in which a recipient chooses to live); rental processes, including time allowed to find a unit; assistance, such as counseling in finding rental housing; and availability of short-term payments to cover moving expenses like rental deposits (CPSTF, 2021; HUD, n.d.-a).

The federal government offers other programs to build or rehabilitate rental housing with tax credits,¹¹ grants, and reduced-interest loans, but without rental assistance, these units are often unaffordable to families with the lowest incomes (CBPP, 2022b; NASEM, 2022b; National Housing Law Project, 2021; National Low Income Housing Coalition, 2022). Additional, sustained federal investment in rental assistance could help reduce waiting times for vouchers, ease housing insecurity and crowded conditions, and alleviate rates of homelessness (Acosta and Gartland, 2021; Fischer et al., 2019; Schapiro et al., 2022). Rental assistance has also been shown to improve mental and physical well-being, reduce health care costs and food insecurity, and improve outcomes for children, including improvements in educational outcomes and behavioral development (Acosta and Gartland, 2021; CPSTF, 2021; Denary et al., 2021; Fischer et al., 2019). Expanding housing choice through vouchers increases access to neighborhoods with more resources and lower poverty (Acosta and Gartland, 2021). For example, Black and Latino children in families with housing vouchers are less likely to live in a high-poverty neighborhood (Fenelon et al., 2022). Additionally, expanding the housing choice voucher program could reduce poverty and racial and ethnic disparities. Using 2019 data, one study estimated that 9.3 million people could be lifted above the poverty line by providing vouchers to all eligible households; this would also reduce gaps in poverty rates between White and racially and ethnically minoritized households (Acosta and Gartland, 2021) (see Figure 6-2). Based on a systemic review, the Community Preventive Services Task Force recommends vouchers as an effective intervention to advance equity and improve health and health-related outcomes, such as health care use, housing security and quality, and neighborhood opportunities (CPSTF, 2021). In addition to overall funding issues, the program could also be improved by giving participants more time to find HUD-certified housing with a landlord who accepts vouchers, providing assistance with housing searches, and recruiting more landlords (CPSTF, 2021).

FIGURE 6-2

Expanding housing vouchers to all eligible households would cut poverty and reduce racial disparities. NOTE: Currently about one in four households eligible for a voucher receives any type of federal rental assistance. Latino category may contain individuals (more...)

Conclusion 6-1: Redlining and associated policies and structures resulted in residential segregation and neighborhood disinvestment, which have led to measurable health inequities present today. Safe, quality housing is necessary for maintaining an adequate standard of living, and there is a compelling link between housing and health equity. Increased federal investment in housing interventions for low-income people, such as the housing voucher program, could improve housing security and health outcomes for children and adults, especially among Black, Latino/a, American Indian and Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander populations, and advance racial and ethnic health equity. Federal investment in housing would benefit from evidence-based guidelines to ensure that such investments do not contribute to future health inequities.

INFRASTRUCTURE: INVESTMENT, DISINVESTMENT, AND COMMUNITY HEALTH

Transportation

Transportation is an essential resource for health through multiple pathways. Accessible and safe transportation and mobility options help people of all abilities access schools, employment, social networks, grocery stores, and health care and social services. The variety of transportation options available to a household corresponds to the extent to which communities have access to basic necessities. For example, research has found that more than 3.6 million people have delayed or missed medical care because of transportation barriers (NASEM, 2016a); people with chronic conditions that require regular care are especially vulnerable. Rural counties are particularly challenged because they have a higher concentration of federally designated primary care health professional shortage areas (NASEM, 2016a). This means that individuals who are mobility challenged or lack their own transportation must often travel farther to receive care. Furthermore, unsafe transportation systems and infrastructure can lead to injuries or death for motorists, cyclists, and pedestrians (GHSA, 2021; Hamann et al., 2020; Raifman and Choma, 2022). Infrastructure contributes to inequitable outcomes here as well, with racial disparities in traffic fatalities and pedestrian injury hospitalizations. Neighborhoods with lower-income, racially and ethnically minoritized communities are less likely to have features such as well-marked crosswalks and sidewalks or other types of infrastructure that lower speeds and improve pedestrian safety (Montgomery, 2021). Complete Streets may be a way to improve equity; they support safe, efficient, and inclusive mobility and multimodal transportation for all users. Complete Streets design approaches depend on community context but can address components such as sidewalks and accessible pedestrian signals and crossing opportunities, bicycle lanes, bus lanes and public transportation stops, and streetscape and landscape (City of Saint Paul, 2016; DOT, 2015a; Smart Growth America, n.d.). When appropriately designed and implemented, they can reduce motor vehicle crashes and reduce risk to pedestrians and bicyclists; more walkable and bikeable communities can also encourage physical activity and help reduce transportation's contribution to greenhouse gas emissions (Aytur et al., 2007; DOT, 2015a,b; FHWA, 2022; Frank et al., 2006; Pineda et al., 2017; Reynolds et al., 2009). Implementing Complete Streets plans and other infrastructure investments could also help prioritize and address outdated, inappropriate, and aging infrastructure in underserved communities (Huang and Taylor, 2019; Smart Growth America, 2023).

It is not coincidental that some of the major battles of the Civil Rights Movement occurred around bus transportation—an essential conduit to work, school, and other essential destinations (Brenman, 2007). Planning and transportation have also harmed many communities in the name of “urban renewal” in the 1950s and 1960s, displacing families, tearing apart social fabric, and uprooting entire neighborhoods (NASEM, 2016b, 2022a). Like housing and education, transportation can serve as a path to expanded opportunity, improved health and well-being, and thriving communities but can also represent an array of strategies that create and deepen social, environmental, and economic inequities that shape health outcomes.

DOT is the federal agency responsible for building and upkeep of the interstate highway system, and its agencies oversee public transit, airports, railroads, gas pipelines, bridges, and tunnels. Approximately 80 percent of the federal DOT budget is passed through to state DOTs. The federal department also sets standards, provides resources for innovations, collaborates with and provides technical assistance to state DOTs and local and regional planning organizations, and operates a research program with multiple academic partners, among other functions. State DOTs “are the primary state agency responsible for planning and programming mobility needs, as well as constructing, managing, and operating the statewide transportation system” (Flanigan and Howard, 2008). Federal coordination is needed to link health outcomes to transportation funding.

Given the range of linkages between transportation and health and the legacy of structural racism in land-use and planning decisions (e.g., devaluing the Black communities displaced by a new highway project), transportation agencies at all levels of government can play robust roles in furthering health equity. DOT has recognized its potential contribution and taken steps to focus considerable resources and effort on improving transportation equity and mitigating past harms. One important dimension of this work has been to center community voices (see Box 6-1).

BOX 6-1

Reconnecting Communities Pilot Program.

Aging Infrastructure

These issues are exacerbated by aging infrastructure. Figure 6-3 shows that the average age of major components of infrastructure (e.g., roads, dams, water treatment plants) are beyond the average life expectancy. Road wear and tear and lack of maintenance, for example, have left just under half of public roadways in mediocre or poor condition (ASCE, 2021). The American Society of Civil Engineers produces a report card for U.S. infrastructure every 4 years; in 2021, it scored a C- (ASCE, 2021). The United States falls short on funding maintenance of vital infrastructure, such as transit, stormwater systems, bridges, and dams (ASCE, 2021), with needed repairs totaling an estimated $1 trillion (Zhao et al., 2019). The American Society of Civil Engineers forecasts $10.3 trillion in gross domestic product (GDP) loss by 2039 if the investment gap is not addressed (ASCE, 2021; EBP and ASCE, 2021).

FIGURE 6-3

Average age and life expectancy of U.S. infrastructure. NOTE: U.S. = United States. SOURCE: Chinowsky, 2022.

The effects of aging or substandard infrastructure are felt by all but particularly by racially and ethnically minoritized communities. For example, Illinois has the most lead pipes of any state, and Black and Latino households are two times more likely than White households to live in a neighborhood with the most lead pipes. Puerto Rico, which has a majority Latino population, has among the worst energy infrastructure, leading to blackouts and high electricity prices (ASCE, 2019; Goubert and Austin, 2022). Similarly, the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights (2018) states that infrastructure projects on reservations have been underfunded for decades, which compounds the backlog of needed maintenance, let alone new projects to improve the physical infrastructure and built environment (NCAI, 2021). Indian Country has over 160,000 miles of roads eligible for federal funding, yet transportation systems are underdeveloped. Additionally, thousands of miles of roads owned by Bureau of Indian Affairs on reservations are among the most unsafe and poorly maintained (NCAI, 2021; U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2018). The lack of public transportation on many reservations, combined with roads in need of repair and often rural locations, complicates access to quality health care, food, education, and employment for many AIAN people.

ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES: WORKPLACE VULNERABILITIES

Occupational health inequities have been recognized by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as increased rates of work-related illness and injury for vulnerable populations (NIOSH, 2019). Some workplace hazards pose direct risks to employee health and safety. For instance, in 2021, 2.6 million people suffered workplace-related injuries or illness in the private sector; one worker died from a work-related injury every 111 minutes during 2020 (BLS, 2021, 2022). As a report from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health found, “not all workers have the same risk of being injured at work, even when they are in the same industry or have the same job” (NIOSH and ASSE, 2015, p. 6). This was especially true for Latino/a workers, who represented 18 percent of the labor force in 2020 but almost 23 percent of all work-related deaths; most fatalities were in the construction, agriculture, and transportation industries (Frederick, 2022). According to the Department of Labor, Latino/a workers have the highest fatal injury rate in the country (Frederick, 2022).

The workplace can present a variety of psychosocial health risks that are compounded by other SDOH. Where someone works can also be an SDOH (Healthy People 2030 includes work as one of the environments that affects health outcomes) (HHS, n.d.). For example, financial stability can determine vulnerability to illness and life expectancy. The gender pay gap contributes to financial stability, and it is larger for AIAN, Hispanic or Latina, Black, and Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander (NHPI) women than for White and Asian women. According to Census Bureau data, for every dollar White men earned in 2021, White and Asian women earned $0.79 and $0.97, respectively. AIAN and Hispanic or Latina women each earned $0.58, Black women $0.63, and NHPI women $0.66 (GAO, 2022). See Chapter 3 for more information on income, employment, and health. Additionally, workplace discrimination and harassment have been shown to affect physical and psychological health, such as elevated blood pressure levels for Black and Latina women and general poor mental health (Okechukwu et al., 2014). This is particularly true when it comes to workplace-based racial discrimination, which contributes to occupational health disparities (Okechukwu et al., 2014).

Congress passed the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970²¹ because it found that “personal injuries and illnesses arising out of work situations impose a substantial burden upon, and are a hindrance to, interstate commerce in terms of lost production, wage loss, medical expenses, and disability compensation payments” (OSHA, n.d.-b). Even with these protections, hazardous work conditions contribute to racial health inequities (Baron et al., 2013; Bui et al., 2020; NASEM, 2017; Rho et al., 2020; Seabury et al., 2017). The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has recognized occupational health inequities as “differences in work-related disease incidence, mental illness, or morbidity and mortality that are closely linked with social, economic, and/or environmental disadvantage such as work arrangements (e.g. contingent work), sociodemographic characteristics (e.g. age, sex, race, and class), and organizational factors (e.g. business size)” (NIOSH, 2019); food production is one of the industries where such inequities manifest (Newman et al., 2015).

Agricultural food production provides an example of how work-related health risks exacerbate social and economic inequities. Such work is among the most hazardous occupations; direct hazards include exposure to heat, extreme conditions, toxic pesticides, and chemicals; musculoskeletal injuries and use of nonergonomic tools; and unsanitary conditions, among other threats to health and safety (Newman et al., 2015; OSHA, n.d.-a). For example, a study of agricultural workers in California found heat strain was associated with increased odds of acute kidney injury (Moyce et al., 2017). Farmworkers can be exposed to pesticides during mixing and application, or because of direct spray, drift, or residue on crops or in soil (Damalas and Koutroubas, 2016; OSHA, n.d.-a). Pesticides can drift to schools, residences, and other facilities nearby. Farmworkers can also carry residue home on skin, clothes, or hair, exposing children and family members. Exposure causes acute health effects, such as rash, headaches, nausea, and difficulty breathing; long-term health effects can include cancers, neurological disorders like Parkinson's disease, and reproductive health issues (Kim et al., 2017).

Federal policy can contribute to inequities in workplace toxic exposure. This happens in the agricultural sector, where about 80 percent of all workers identify as Latino/a (Donley et al., 2022; Ornelas et al., 2021); occupational risks will disproportionately affect one ethnically minoritized group. Furthermore, according to the Department of Labor's 2017–2018 National Agricultural Workers Survey, approximately 44 percent of farmworkers reported they did not have health insurance (Ornelas et al., 2021). Regulators have taken steps to protect consumers from harmful pesticides, including the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act²² and Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act,²³ which together form the basis of pesticide regulation in the United States. However, the combination of disproportionate exposure at the workplace and lack of health insurance can produce more negative outcomes for agricultural workers (APHA, 2011; Donley et al., 2022; Liebman et al., 2013; Ornelas et al., 2021). The production and extensive use of industrial agriculture also exposes non-workers to health dangers. Pesticide production tends to expose surrounding low-income Black and Latino/a communities. In Kentucky, a major DDT producer was designated a Superfund site after it contaminated a community in which 84 percent of the residents were Black (Donley et al., 2022). California EPA has found that pesticide exposure during the use phase also exposes low-income and Latino/a communities to health risks (Donley et al., 2022); pesticide use in California is greatest in majority Latino/a counties (Cushing et al., 2015). Consequently, farmworkers and people who live in areas where pesticides are produced and/or used have higher concentrations of toxins in their bodies. For example, strawberry fieldworkers in Monterey County, California, had median urinary pesticide metabolite levels that were about 61 to 395 times higher than national levels (Salvatore et al., 2008). In Washington state, researchers discovered that 85 percent of farmworker homes contained pesticide-laden dust and 88 percent of children who lived with farmworkers had pesticides in their urine (Curl et al., 2002). In sum, pesticide exposure is responsible for thousands (estimated 10,000–20,000) of medical visits for acute health needs (Donley et al., 2022). EPA has acknowledged these inequities and proposed to resolve them by drafting the “Revised Risk Assessment Methods for Workers, Children of Workers in Agricultural Fields, and Pesticides with No Food Uses,” but it faced opposition and has been stalled since 2009 (Donley et al., 2022).

The Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA) oversees most occupational sector safety standards, but EPA exerts authority over agricultural worker safety through the federal WPS, which is largely administered by states and meant to reduce risk of pesticide poisoning and injuries among agricultural workers (EPA, 2023a). Lack of compliance monitoring and enforcement of the WPS disincentivizes inspections for violations; federal data show that more than half of violations have no enforcement action, and many that do only result in a warning (Guarna et al., 2022). When penalties are assessed, they are often low. For example, fines in California for pesticide-related violations from 2019 to 2021 were $50–12,000, but the majority were $500 or less (Guarna et al., 2022). Despite improvements to the standard in 2015, worker protection from pesticides could be improved further (APHA, 2011; Bohme, 2015; Donley et al., 2022; Guarna et al., 2022; Liebman et al., 2013). Future efforts need to address exposure in the workplace, residential communities, and the production site, such as requiring no-spray buffer zones to protect workers and communities from pesticide drift. This idea is supported by a new rule²⁴ proposed by EPA in 2023 aimed at reducing exposure for farmworkers and their communities by updating the pesticide application exclusion zone (EPA, 2023b). Other ideas for change include extending worker protection to agricultural workers that enables access to safety training and information in Spanish and other languages; it could be a requirement that pesticide labels be printed in Spanish, as well. Federal policies that explicitly protect essential workers or workers who are most vulnerable (such as making sure that farmworkers are covered by policies that have excluded them or adding a federal heat safety standard) could be implemented, or OSHA's jurisdiction over regulation of pesticide-related occupational hazards could be restored. EPA could also be granted effective, meaningful tools to respond to states that fail to enforce the WPS, and penalties for violations could be increased (Guarna et al., 2022).

Conclusion 6-3: There is a lack of coordination among relevant federal agencies to address workplace protection from pesticides, such as among the Occupational Safety and Health Administration, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Inadequate workplace protections from pesticides for agricultural workers disproportionately impact Latino/a workers, their children, and surrounding communities.

FOOD ACCESS AND PRODUCTION

Healthy neighborhoods require access to healthy food systems. Access to nutritious, affordable food and to supermarkets and grocery stores, corner stores, convenience stores, and other food venues is an important factor in health outcomes across the life span. USDA defines food insecurity as a “household-level economic and social condition of limited or uncertain access to adequate food” (USDA, 2022b). Poor nutrition and food insecurity (or access to only nonnutritious foods) are associated with increased risk of chronic diseases, from obesity, cardiovascular disease, and hypertension to type 2 diabetes and certain cancers, and, among children, frequent infections (e.g., ear or upper respiratory infections), iron-deficiency anemia, poor oral health, and overall poor health (Pflipsen and Zenchenko, 2017; Seligman and Berkowitz, 2019; Thorndike et al., 2022). According to data from the Current Population Survey Food Security Supplement, approximately 10 percent of U.S. households were food insecure in 2021, as were 12.5 percent of households with children. The prevalence of food insecurity in 2021 was higher among lower-income (26.5 percent), Black (19.8 percent), and Hispanic (16.2 percent) households than among non-Hispanic White (7.0 percent) households and those with incomes higher than 185 percent of the poverty threshold (5.0 percent) (USDA, 2022c). About 20–25 percent of AIAN people are food insecure (Feeding America, n.d.; Jernigan et al., 2017).

Additionally, distribution of supermarkets, which can provide more nutritious food options at lower prices, is inequitable in the United States. USDA estimates that, in 2019, 11–27 percent of the U.S. population lived in census tracts that have both low income²⁵ and low access²⁶ to large food stores, such as grocery stores and supermarkets (Rhone et al., 2022). Areas of low income and low access are sometimes referred to as “food deserts” in popular culture. People who are Black, Asian, Hispanic, and NHPI generally live closer to food stores than do people who are White or AIAN (Rhone et al., 2019). Much of this variation across racial, ethnic, and tribal groups is correlated with differences in living in urban versus rural areas. Within urban and rural areas, in general, White people lived further away from food stores (Rhone et al., 2019). However, Bower and colleagues (2014) found that majority Black census tracts had the fewest supermarkets and White census tracts had the most at equal levels of poverty. Higher census tract poverty was associated with lower supermarket availability and higher grocery²⁷ and convenience store availability (Bower et al., 2014). In rural areas, 12 percent of AIAN people lived more than 20 miles away from the nearest food store, compared with less than 1 percent of rural residents overall (Rhone et al., 2019), and the largest proportion of AIAN people in tribal areas live 1–10 miles from a grocery store (driving distance) (Kaufman et al., 2014). Access to healthy food is also more difficult for those who do not own a car or must rely on often inadequate public transportation infrastructure.

Climate change will continue to affect food systems through an array of mechanisms, such as more frequent heavy precipitation, which can erode soil and deplete nutrients; stronger storms and sea level rise, which can affect agricultural land and water supplies; and increased threat of wildfire, which poses risk to farmlands and rangelands; it may also affect pollinator ecology. Climate change is also likely to negatively affect livestock health and productivity (e.g., heat stress) (EPA, 2022a; USGCRP, 2018).

The Agriculture Improvement Act (commonly referred to as the “Farm Bill”) is a major piece of federal legislation that influences what and how food is produced in the United States. It affects the composition of the food supply, nutrition and public health, food prices, agricultural producers and practices, the use and conservation of natural resources, and trade (Shannon et al., 2015). The omnibus law is typically reauthorized every 5 years (Johnson and Monke, 2023); the 2018 act expires at the end of FY2023 and included 12 titles.²⁸ The nutrition title comprised the majority of funding in the 2018 bill (the largest part of which was for the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program [SNAP], followed by crop insurance, commodities, and conservation) (Johnson and Monke, 2023). Given the bill's size, scope, and impact, it could benefit from an equity audit to review its effects on racial, ethnic, and tribal health equity; the USDA Equity Commission's interim report recommends equity audits across USDA's services (USDA Equity Commission, 2023).

As described, reservations are often in rural areas and frequently underresourced. The reservation system destroyed traditional food systems; sources of nutritious food may be sparse and/or difficult to reach (Maillacheruvu, 2022; Nikolaus et al., 2022). Part of the nutrition title in the Farm Bill includes the Food Distribution Program on Indian Reservations. This program provides USDA food commodities, in lieu of SNAP benefits, to eligible low-income households on reservations and American Indians living in Oklahoma or near reservations in designated areas; eligible households cannot participate in both SNAP and the Food Distribution Program on Indian Reservations during the same month (Aussenberg and Billings, 2019; Croft, 2022; Maillacheruvu, 2022). The 2018 Farm Bill increased the federal administrative funding, requiring the government to pay a minimum of 80 percent of administrative costs, and authorized a demonstration project for tribes to enter self-determination contracts to purchase their own commodities, giving them more flexibility in selecting foods (Croft, 2022; Johnson and Monke, 2023). This is in accordance with the USDA Equity Action Plan (and its commission's interim report) and its Indigenous Food Sovereignty Initiative, both of which acknowledge and support enabling tribal self-determination and self-governance, strengthening tribes' efforts to protect and build traditional food systems, and responding to dietary needs as they see fit with traditional and culturally appropriate food, including tribally grown food (Johnson, 2022; Maillacheruvu, 2022; USDA Equity Commission, 2023). These changes (among 63 new tribal-specific provisions in 11 of the 12 titles to support food, farm and agriculture, infrastructure, and research programs for tribal governments, communities, and food producers) came about in part because of the sustained efforts of the Native Farm Bill Coalition, an initiative made up of 170 tribal governments (Duren, 2020).

Racial inequities extend beyond access to food and federal nutrition support to the production portion of the food system. From the late 1990s to the 2010s, USDA settled multiple class action suits from Black, Latino/a, and AIAN farmers who claimed the agency engaged in systemic discrimination when deciding on farm loans and access to land. In Pigford v. Glickman,²⁹ the federal government was ordered to pay more than $2 billion in monetary relief to a group of Black farmers for damages caused by discriminatory loan and land access practices (NSAC, 2017). Similarly, Keepseagle v. Vilsack³⁰ found USDA had systematically discriminated against American Indian farmers and ranchers since the 1980s by denying them access to low interest rate loans in the Farm Loan Program; the settlement was $760 million (CohenMilstein, n.d.; NSAC, 2017). Discrimination and restricted access to opportunities and resources (e.g., land, infrastructure, credit, capital, information) results in generational wealth loss for racially and ethnically minoritized farmers and reduces their numbers (Ackoff et al., 2022; Aminetzah et al., 2021; Casey, 2021; Union of Concerned Scientists, 2020). In response to advocacy by organizations such as Rural Coalition and 1890 land-grant colleges (historically Black universities established under the Second Morrill Act of 1890³¹) (USDA, n.d.), the 1990 Farm Bill created a formal designation of socially disadvantaged farmer and rancher: “a group whose members have been subjected to racial or ethnic prejudice because of their identity as members of a group without regard to their individual qualities”³²; this includes Black, Latino/a, Asian, NHPI, and AIAN farmers and ranchers (NSAC, 2017). Some, but not all, USDA programs also include women (USDA, 2022d). The 2018 Farm Bill included expanded support for this group in crop insurance, farm credit, and conservation programs. Additionally, USDA leadership signaled intention to address possible discrimination involving this group across USDA programs and offices (Johnson, 2021).

Adding provisions to the 2018 Farm Bill aimed specifically at tribal governments and communities is a positive example of incorporating community voice in federal policy making; building strong community leadership and capacity is an important way to improve public health (NASEM, 2017; NCAI, 2021). However, room for improvement remains in the next iteration of the Farm Bill, and the federal government can do more to promote racial, ethnic, and tribal equity in the food and agricultural system. See, for example, the priorities of the Native Farm Bill Coalition (Parker et al., 2022), the National Young Farmers Coalition (Ackoff et al., 2022), and the National Sustainable Agriculture Coalition (NSAC, 2023) for the 2023 Farm Bill, which include additional ways to address racial, ethnic, and tribal equity. For more information on racial, ethnic, and tribal food and land issues in this report, see Chapter 3 (SNAP and the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children), Chapter 4 (National School Lunch Program), and Chapter 7 (land dispossession and restoration).

Conclusion 6-4: Community voice through advocacy has played a positive role in shaping iterations of the Agriculture Improvement Act. However, given the bill's size and scope, an audit of the equity implications of the bill could identify additional areas of improvement, such as areas to expand further tribal self-determination and self-governance in relevant programs and other mechanisms to advance racial and ethnic health equity.

CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS

This chapter has outlined some of the key ways that the built environment functions as an SDOH and how federal policies in this area positively and negatively impact racial, ethnic, and tribal equity. Although this report provides crosscutting recommendations for federal action (see Chapter 8), many National Academies reports have evidence-based and promising recommendations for federal action on specific policies to advance racial, ethnic, and tribal health equity in the area of neighborhood and built environment (including and beyond the federal policies reviewed in this chapter) that are still relevant (see Box 6-2 for examples of such recommendations from two reports also focused on health equity).

BOX 6-2

Example Recommendations from National Academies Reports.

Given the broad scope of this SDOH domain, the committee could not review all relevant federal policies. However, the policies in this chapter highlight several crosscutting themes—access barriers for existing programs, program implementation issues, and the need to include community voice. Where people work, live, play, and age can have major repercussions on health outcomes, and the current system of federal laws and policies can play a supporting role in furthering inequities. Because of the relatively fixed nature of the built environment, past federal policies that were key to shaping it still have major implications for processes that affect racial, ethnic, and tribal health outcomes and inequities. For example, redlining continues to harm some communities and benefit others today. The evidence in this chapter illustrates several examples of how policies have resulted in intergenerational health outcomes disproportionately burdening communities who have faced segregation, disinvestment, and exposure to environmental hazards—a foundational context that needs to be accounted for when implementing or creating federal policy.

The committee identified federal actions, supported by evidence, that can address racial and ethnic health inequities in this domain. First, expanding access to effective programs such as federal rental assistance can improve housing security and health outcomes among racially and ethnically minoritized communities. Second, federal support for infrastructure projects provides opportunities to prevent health inequities from being built into racially and ethnically minoritized communities; integrating several existing tools into infrastructure investment decisions will need to be a priority. Third, government agencies that work on housing, transportation, food, and other areas related to the built environment need to review their policies and practices to verify that they collaborate with community stakeholders and public health partners to avoid or minimize health risks; a positive example is the inclusion of AIAN community voice in parts of the Farm Bill. The chapter also highlights future challenges. Federal actions will need to face the reality that, gone unchecked, climate change will further amplify harms in the built environment.

REFERENCES

• AAPD (American Association of People with Disabilities). Equity in transportation for people with disabilities. Washington, DC: American Association of People with Disabilities; n.d.
• Aaronson D, Hartley D, Mazumder B. The effects of the 1930s HOLC “redlining” maps. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy. 2021;13(4):355–392.
• Ackoff S, Flom E, Polanco VG, Howard D, Manly J, Mueller C, Rippon-Butler H, Wyatt L. Building a future with farmers 2022: Results and recommendations from the National Young Farmer Survey. Hudson, NY: National Young Farmers Coalition; 2022.
• Acosta S. Tribal Housing Funding a Critical Component of Build Back Better. 2021. [March 2, 2023]. https://www​.cbpp.org​/blog/tribal-housing-funding-a-critical-component-of-build-back-better .
• Acosta S, Gartland E. Families wait years for housing vouchers due to inadequate funding: Expanding program would reduce hardship, improve equity. Washington, DC: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities; 2021.
• ADA.gov. Introduction to the Americans with Disabilities Act. [May 28, 2023]. n.d. https://www​.ada.gov/topics/intro-to-ada/
• Ahmad K, Erqou S, Shah N, Nazir U, Morrison AR, Choudhary G, Wu WC. Association of poor housing conditions with COVID-19 incidence and mortality across U.S. counties. PLOS ONE. 2020;15(11):e0241327. [PMC free article: PMC7605696] [PubMed: 33137155]
• Aminetzah D, Brennan J, Davis W, Idoniboye B, Noel N, Palowski J, Stewart S. Black Farmers in the U.S.: The Opportunity for Addressing Racial Disparities in Farming. 2021. [March 2, 2023]. https://www​.mckinsey​.com/industries/agriculture​/our-insights​/black-farmers-in-the-us-the-opportunity-for-addressing-racial-disparities-in-farming .
• Andrade TJH. Belated justice: The failures and promise of the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act. American Indian Law Review. 2022;46(1):1–56.
• APHA (American Public Health Association). Ending Agricultural Exceptional-ism: Strengthening Worker Protection in Agriculture Through Regulation, Enforcement, Training, and Improved Worksite Health Safety: Policy Number 201110. 2011. [May 31, 2023]. https://www​.apha.org​/policies-and-advocacy​/public-health-policy-statements​/policy-database​/2014/07/09​/10/10/ending-agricultural-exceptionalism-strengthening-worker-protection-in-agriculture .
• Archer DN. “White men’s roads through Black men’s homes”: Advancing racial equity through highway reconstruction. Vanderbilt Law Review. 2020;73(5):1259–1330.
• Arnold CA. Resilience Justice Project Researchers. Resilience justice and community-based green and blue infrastructure. William & Mary Environmental Law and Policy Review. 2021;45(3):665–737.
• ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers). 2019 report card for Puerto Rico’ s infrastructure. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers; 2019.
• ASCE. 2021 report card for America’ s infrastructure. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers; 2021.
• Ash M, Boyce JK. Racial disparities in pollution exposure and employment at U.S. industrial facilities. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2018;115(42):10636–10641. [PMC free article: PMC6196500] [PubMed: 30275295]
• Aussenberg RA, Billings KC. 2018 Farm Bill primer: SNAP and nutrition title programs. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service; 2019.
• Aytur SA, Rodriguez DA, Evenson KR, Catellier DJ, Rosamond WD. Promoting active community environments through land use and transportation planning. American Journal of Health Promotion. 2007;21(4 Suppl):397–407. [PubMed: 17465186]
• Bailey ZD, Krieger N, Agénor M, Graves J, Linos N, Bassett MT. Structural racism and health inequities in the USA: Evidence and interventions. The Lancet. 2017;389(10077):1453–1463. [PubMed: 28402827]
• Banaji MR, Fiske ST, Massey DS. Systemic racism: Individuals and interactions, institutions and society. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications. 2021;6(1):82. [PMC free article: PMC8688641] [PubMed: 34931287]
• Barber S, Ferreira A, Gripper AB, Jahn JL. Healthy and thriving: Advancing anti-racism evidence and solutions to transform the health of Black communities. The Lancet. 2022;400(10368):2016–2018. [PubMed: 36502828]
• Baron SL, Steege AL, Marsh SM, Menendez CC, Myers JR. CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). Nonfatal work-related injuries and illnesses—United States, 2010. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Supplements. 2013;62(3):35–40. [PubMed: 24264487]
• Baurick T, Younes L, Meiners J. Welcome to “Cancer Alley,” Where Toxic Air Is About to Get Worse. 2019. [May 28, 2023]. https://www​.propublica​.org/article/welcome-to-cancer-alley-where-toxic-air-is-about-to-get-worse .
• BIA (Bureau of Indian Affairs). What Is a Federal Indian Reservation. 2017. [March 17, 2023]. https://www​.bia.gov/faqs​/what-federal-indian-reservation .
• Blick RN, Franklin MD, Ellsworth DW, Havercamp SM, Kornblau BL. The double burden: Health disparities among people of color living with disabilities. Columbus, OH: Ohio Disability and Health Program; 2015.
• BLS (Bureau of Labor Statistics). The Economics Daily: Number of Fatal Work Injuries in 2020 the Lowest Since 2013. 2021. [March 17, 2023]. https://www​.bls.gov/opub​/ted/2021/number-of-fatal-work-injuries-in-2020-the-lowest-since-2013.htm .
• BLS. Employer-Reported Workplace Injuries and Illnesses, 2021. 2022. [March 17, 2023]. https://www​.bls.gov/news​.release/osh.nr0.htm .
• Bohme SR. EPA’s proposed worker protection standard and the burdens of the past. International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health. 2015;21(2):161–165. [PMC free article: PMC4457125] [PubMed: 25589368]
• Bowen KJ, Lynch Y. The public health benefits of green infrastructure: The potential of economic framing for enhanced decision-making. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability. 2017;25:90–95.
• Bower KM, Thorpe RJ Jr, Rohde C, Gaskin DJ. The intersection of neighborhood racial segregation, poverty, and urbanicity and its impact on food store availability in the United States. Preventive Medicine. 2014;58:33–39. [PMC free article: PMC3970577] [PubMed: 24161713]
• Braveman P, Dekker M, Egerter S, Sadegh-Nobari T, Pollack C. Issue brief #7 exploring the social determinants of health: Housing and health. Princeton, NJ: Robert Wood Johnson Foundation; 2011.
• Braveman PA, Arkin E, Proctor D, Kauh T, Holm N. Systemic and structural racism: Definitions, examples, health damages, and approaches to dismantling. Health Affairs. 2022;41(2):171–178. [PubMed: 35130057]
• Brenman M. Transportation inequity in the United States: A historical overview. 2007. [March 23, 2023]. https://www​.americanbar​.org/groups/crsj/publications​/human_rights_magazine_home​/human​_rights_vol34_2007​/summer2007/hr_summer07_brenma/
• Brulle RJ, Pellow DN. Environmental justice: Human health and environmental inequalities. Annual Review of Public Health. 2006;27(1):103–124. [PubMed: 16533111]
• Bui DP, McCaffrey K, Friedrichs M, LaCross N, Lewis NM, Sage K, Barbeau B, Vilven D, Rose C, Braby S, Willardson S, Carter A, Smoot C, Winquist A, Dunn A. Racial and ethnic disparities among COVID-19 cases in workplace outbreaks by industry sector—Utah, March 6–June 5, 2020. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2020;69(33):1133–1138. [PMC free article: PMC7439983] [PubMed: 32817604]
• Bullard RD. Solid waste sites and the Black Houston community. Sociological Inquiry. 1983;53(2–3):273–288. [PubMed: 11635985]
• Bullard RD, Mohai P, Saha R, Wright B. Toxic wastes and race at twenty: 1987–2007. Cleveland, OH: United Church of Christ; 2007.
• Burnett J. Hawaii Tribune-Herald. Jul 10, 2021. Officials mark 100th anniversary of signing of Hawaiian Homes Commission Act.
• Campbell C, Greenberg R, Mankikar D, Ross RD. A case study of environmental injustice: The failure in Flint. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2016;13(10):951. [PMC free article: PMC5086690] [PubMed: 27690065]
• Casey AR. Racial equity in U.S. farming: Background in brief. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service; 2021.
• CBO (Congressional Budget Office). Federal Support for Financing State and Local Transportation and Water Infrastructure. Washington, DC: Congressional Budget Office; 2018.
• CBPP (Center on Budget and Policy Priorities). Policy Basics: The Housing Choice Voucher Program. 2021. [March 2, 2023]. https://www​.cbpp.org​/research/housing/the-housing-choice-voucher-program .
• CBPP. So are their solutions. Washington, DC: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities; 2022a. Chart book: Housing and health problems are intertwined.
• CBPP. Policy Basics: Federal Rental Assistance. 2022b. [March 2, 2023]. https://www​.cbpp.org​/research/housing/federal-rental-assistance .
• CBPP. United States Federal Rental Assistance Fact Sheet. 2022c. [March 2, 2023]. https://www​.cbpp.org​/research/housing/federal-rental-assistance-fact-sheets#US .
• CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention: Populations at Higher Risk. 2021. [May 23, 2023]. https://www​.cdc.gov/nceh​/lead/prevention/populations.htm .
• CDC. Basic Facts About Mold and Dampness. 2022a. [March 2, 2023]. https://www​.cdc.gov/mold/faqs.htm .
• CDC. Climate Effects on Health. 2022b. [March 2, 2023]. https://www​.cdc.gov/climateandhealth​/effects/default.htm .
• CDC. Health Effects of Lead Exposure. 2022c. [March 2, 2023]. https://www​.cdc.gov/nceh​/lead/prevention/health-effects.htm .
• CDC. Justice, Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion in Climate Adaptation Planning. 2022d. [March 2, 2023]. https://www​.cdc.gov/climateandhealth​/JEDI.htm .
• CDC and HUD (Department of Housing and Urban Development). Healthy housing reference manual. Atlanta, GA: Department of Health and Human Services; 2006.
• Chetty R, Hendren N, Katz LF. The effects of exposure to better neighborhoods on children: New evidence from the Moving to Opportunity experiment. American Economic Review. 2016;106(4):855–902. [PubMed: 29546974]
• Chetty R, Friedman JN, Hendren N, Jones MR, Porter SR. The opportunity atlas: Mapping the childhood roots of social mobility: Working paper 25147. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research; 2018.
• Chinowsky P. Intense Heat and Flooding Are Wreaking Havoc on Power and Water Systems as Climate Change Batters America’s Aging Infrastructure. 2022. [March 2, 2023]. https:​//theconversation​.com/intense-heat-and-flooding-are-wreaking-havoc-on-power-and-water-systems-asclimate-change-batters-americas-aging-infrastructure-189761 .
• Cho R. Paper presented at Meeting 3, Part 1: Committee on the Review of Federal Policies That Contribute to Racial and Ethnic Health Inequities. Washington, DC: Jul 26, 2022. Presentation to the Committee on the Review of Federal Policies That Contribute to Racial and Ethnic Health Inequities.
• City of Saint Paul. Saint Paul street design manual. Saint Paul, MN: City of Saint Paul; 2016.
• Clark LP, Millet DB, Marshall JD. National patterns in environmental injustice and inequality: Outdoor NO2 air pollution in the United States. PLOS ONE. 2014;9(4):e94431. [PMC free article: PMC3988057] [PubMed: 24736569]
• Clark LP, Millet DB, Marshall JD. Changes in transportation-related air pollution exposures by race-ethnicity and socioeconomic status: Outdoor nitrogen dioxide in the United States in 2000 and 2010. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2017;125(9):097012. [PMC free article: PMC5915204] [PubMed: 28930515]
• CohenMilstein. Keepseagle. [March 2, 2023]. n.d. https://www​.cohenmilstein​.com/case-study/keepseagle .
• Consillio K. More Than 3,000 Lots Proposed for Native Hawaiians on Housing Waitlist; Advocates Say More Needed. 2022. [May 21, 2023]. https://www​.kitv.com​/news/local/more-than-3-000-lots-proposed-for-native-hawaiians-on-housing-waitlist-advocates-say-more​/article_66d3fff6-33de-11ed-b542-87d7cb86a334.html .
• Conzelmann C, Salazar-Miranda A, Phan T, Hoffman J. Working paper series: Long-term causal effects of redlining on environmental risk exposure. Richmond, VA: Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond; 2023.
• Copeland C. Green infrastructure and issues in managing urban stormwater. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service; 2016.
• CPSTF (Community Preventive Services Task Force). Social determinants of health: Tenant-based housing voucher programs: Finding and rationale statement. Atlanta, GA: Office of the Associate Director for Policy and Strategy, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2021.
• Croft GK. Preparing for the next Farm Bill. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service; 2022.
• Cullingworth JB, Caves RW. Planning in the USA: Policies, issues, and processes. 3rd ed. London, UK: Routledge; 2009.
• Curl CL, Fenske RA, Kissel JC, Shirai JH, Moate TF, Griffith W, Coronado G, Thompson B. Evaluation of take-home organophosphorus pesticide exposure among agricultural workers and their children. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2002;110(12):A787–A792. [PMC free article: PMC1241133] [PubMed: 12460819]
• Cushing L, Faust J, August LM, Cendak R, Wieland W, Alexeeff G. Racial/ethnic disparities in cumulative environmental health impacts in California: Evidence from a statewide environmental justice screening tool (CalEnviroScreen 1.1). American Journal of Public Health. 2015;105(11):2341–2348. [PMC free article: PMC4605180] [PubMed: 26378826]
• Damalas CA, Koutroubas SD. Farmers’ exposure to pesticides: Toxicity types and ways of prevention. Toxics. 2016;4(1) [PMC free article: PMC5606636] [PubMed: 29051407]
• Davies IP, Haugo RD, Robertson JC, Levin PS. The unequal vulnerability of communities of color to wildfire. PLOS ONE. 2018;13(11):e0205825. [PMC free article: PMC6214520] [PubMed: 30388129]
• Deep South Center for Environmental Justice. Surviving cancer alley: The stories of five communities. New Orleans, LA: Deep South Center for Environmental Justice; 2020.
• Denary W, Fenelon A, Schlesinger P, Purtle J, Blankenship KM, Keene DE. Does rental assistance improve mental health? Insights from a longitudinal cohort study. Social Science & Medicine. 2021;282:114100. [PMC free article: PMC8299474] [PubMed: 34144434]
• Department of Energy. Energy Saver: Efficient Home Design. [May 20, 2023]. n.d. https://www​.energy.gov​/energysaver/efficient-home-design .
• Department of Hawaiian Home Lands. About the Department of Hawaiian Home Lands. [May 21, 2023]. n.d. https://dhhl​.hawaii.gov/dhhl/
• Dillon L, Poston B. Los Angeles Times. Nov 11, 2021. Freeways force out residents in communities of color—again.
• DOJ (Department of Justice). Justice Department Announces New Initiative to Combat Redlining. 2023. [May 22, 2023]. https://www​.justice.gov​/opa/pr/justice-department-announces-new-initiative-combat-redlining .
• Domonoske C. Interactive Redlining Map Zooms in on America’s History of Discrimination. 2016. [May 23, 2023]. https://www​.npr.org/sections​/thetwo-way/2016​/10/19/498536077​/interactive-redlining-map-zooms-in-on-americas-history-of-discrimination .
• Donley N, Bullard RD, Economos J, Figueroa I, Lee J, Liebman AK, Martinez DN, Shafiei F. Pesticides and environmental injustice in the USA: Root causes, current regulatory reinforcement and a path forward. BMC Public Health. 2022;22(1) [PMC free article: PMC9017009] [PubMed: 35436924]
• Dorazio J. Localized anti-displacement policies: Ways to combat the effects of gentrification and lack of affordable housing. Washington, DC: Center for American Progress; 2022.
• DOT (Department of Transportation). Complete Streets. 2015a. [May 23, 2023]. https://www​.transportation​.gov/mission/health​/complete-streets .
• DOT. Complete Streets Policies. 2015b. [May 28, 2023]. https://www​.transportation​.gov/mission/health​/complete-streets-policies .
• DOT. Biden-Harris Administration Announces $686 Million in Grants to Modernize Older Transit Stations and Improve Accessibility Across the Country. 2022a. [May 23, 2023]. https://www​.transportation​.gov/briefing-room​/biden-harris-administration-announces-686-million-grants-modernize-older-transit .
• DOT. Biden Administration Announces First-Ever Funding Program Dedicated to Reconnecting American Communities. 2022b. [May 31, 2023]. https://www​.transportation​.gov/briefing-room​/biden-administration-announces-first-ever-funding-program-dedicated-reconnecting .
• DOT. Reconnecting Communities Pilot Program. 2023. [May 31, 2023]. https://www​.transportation​.gov/grants/reconnecting-communities .
• DOT. U.S. Department of Transportation’ s Disability Policy Priorities. [May 23, 2023]. n.d. https://www​.transportation​.gov/mission/accessibility​/priorities .
• Duranton G, Turner MA. The fundamental law of road congestion: Evidence from U.S. cities. American Economic Review. 2011;101(6):2616–2652.
• Duren CD. The native Farm Bill coalition and the 2018 Farm Bill: Building a strong, sustained voice on food and agriculture issues in Indian country. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems. 2020;35(4):463–464.
• Eaton TT. Approach and case-study of green infrastructure screening analysis for urban stormwater control. Journal of Environmental Management. 2018;209:495–504. [PubMed: 29316470]
• EBP and ASCE. Failure to act: Economic impacts of status quo investment across infrastructure systems. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers; 2021.
• EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). Understanding the Safe Drinking Water Act. 2004. [March 14, 2023]. https://www​.epa.gov/sites​/default/files/2015-04​/documents/epa816f04030.pdf .
• EPA. Indoor Air Quality. 2021. [March 2, 2023]. https://www​.epa.gov/report-environment​/indoor-air-quality .
• EPA. Climate Change Impacts on Agriculture and Food Supply. 2022a. [March 2, 2023]. https://www​.epa.gov/climateimpacts​/climate-change-impacts-agriculture-and-food-supply .
• EPA. Health and Environmental Effects of Particulate Matter (PM). 2022b. [March 2, 2023]. https://www​.epa.gov/pm-pollution​/health-and-environmental-effects-particulate-matter-pm .
• EPA. Agricultural Worker Protection Standard (WPS). 2023a. [March 15, 2023]. https://www​.epa.gov/pesticide-worker-safety​/agricultural-worker-protection-standard-wps .
• EPA. EPA Proposes Rule to Protect Farmworkers and Pesticide Handlers from Exposure. 2023b. [March 15, 2023]. https://www​.epa.gov/newsreleases​/epa-proposes-rule-protect-farmworkers-and-pesticide-handlers-exposures .
• EPA. Overcoming Barriers to Green Infrastructure. 2023c. [May 22, 2023]. https://www​.epa.gov/green-infrastructure​/overcoming-barriers-green-infrastructure .
• Faber JW. We built this: Consequences of New Deal Era intervention in America’s racial geography. American Sociological Review. 2020;85(5):739–775.
• Farrell J, Burow PB, McConnell K, Bayham J, Whyte K, Koss G. Effects of land dispossession and forced migration on Indigenous peoples in North America. Science. 2021;374(6567):eabe4943. [PubMed: 34709911]
• Feeding America. Hunger Impacts Native American Families and Communities. [March 2, 2023]. n.d. https://www​.feedingamerica​.org/hunger-in-america​/native-american .
• Fenelon A, Slopen N, Newman SJ. The effects of rental assistance programs on neighborhood outcomes for U.S. children: Nationwide evidence by program and race/ethnicity. Urban Affairs Review. 2022;59(3):832–865.
• FHWA (Federal Highway Administration). Complete Streets in FHWA. 2022. [May 28, 2023]. https://highways​.dot​.gov/complete-streets​/complete-streets-fhwa .
• Fischer W, Rice D, Mazzara A. Research shows rental assistance reduces hardship and provides platform to expand opportunity for low-income families. Washington, DC: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities; 2019.
• Fischer W, Acosta S, Gartland E. More housing vouchers: Most important step to help more people afford stable homes. Washington, DC: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities; 2021.
• Fitzpatrick T. Tribal land and ownership statuses: Overview and selected issues for Congress. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service; 2021.
• Flanigan E, Howard M. An interim guidebook on the congestion management process in metropolitan transportation planning. Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration; 2008.
• Foster J, Lowe A, Winkelman S. The value of green infrastructure for urban climate adaptation. Washington, DC: The Center for Clean Air Policy; 2011.
• Frank LD, Sallis JF, Conway TL, Chapman JE, Saelens BE, Bachman W. Many pathways from land use to health: Associations between neighborhood walkability and active transportation, body mass index, and air quality. Journal of the American Planning Association. 2006;72(1):75–87.
• Frank T. Scientific American. Jun 2, 2020. Flooding disproportionately harms black neighborhoods.
• Frederick J. Expanding Efforts to Ensure the Health and Safety of Hispanic Workers. 2022. [March 3, 2023]. https://blog​.dol.gov​/2021/09/27/expanding-efforts-to-ensure-the-health-and-safety-of-hispanic-workers .
• Frumkin H. COVID-19, the built environment, and health. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2021;129(7):075001. [PMC free article: PMC8294798] [PubMed: 34288733]
• Frumkin H, Haines A. Global environmental change and noncommunicable disease risks. Annual Review of Public Health. 2019;40:261–282. [PubMed: 30633714]
• FTA (Federal Transit Administration). Fact Sheet: Enhanced Mobility of Seniors and Individuals with Disabilities. 2022. [May 23, 2023]. https://www​.transit.dot​.gov/funding/grants​/fact-sheet-enhanced-mobility-seniors-and-individuals-disabilities .
• GAO (Government Accountability Office). Lead paint in housing: HUD has not identified high-risk project-based rental assistance properties. Washington, DC: Government Accountability Office; 2020.
• GAO. Lead paint in housing: Key considerations for adopting stricter lead evaluation methods in HUD’ s voucher program. Washington, DC: Government Accountability Office; 2021.
• GAO. Women in the workforce: The gender pay gap is greater for certain racial and ethnic groups and varies by education level. Washington, DC: Government Accountability Office; 2022.
• GHSA (Governors Highway Safety Administration). An analysis of traffic fatalities by race and ethnicity. Washington, DC: Governors Highway Safety Association; 2021.
• Gibson S. A House to Last for 500 Years. 2017. [May 20, 2023]. https://www​.greenbuildingadvisor​.com/article​/a-house-to-last-for-500-years .
• Glantz A, Martinez E. For People of Color, Banks Are Shutting the Door to Homeownership. 2018. [May 22, 2023]. https://revealnews​.org​/article/for-people-of-color-banks-are-shuttingthe-door-to-homeownership/
• Goubert A, Austin A. The Historic Opportunities for Racial Equity in the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act. 2022. [March 2, 2023]. https://cepr​.net/the-historic-opportunities-for-racial-equity-in-the-infrastructure-investment-and-jobs-act/
• Grabowski ZJ, McPhearson T, Pickett STA. Transforming U.S. urban green infrastructure planning to address equity. Landscape and Urban Planning. 2023;229:104591.
• Guarna ON, Beyranevand LJ, Nelson LS, Pulaski T. Exposed and at risk: Opportunities to strengthen enforcement of pesticide regulations for farmworker safety. South Royalton, VT: Center for Agriculture and Food Systems, Vermont Law and Graduate School; 2022.
• Hamann C, Peek-Asa C, Butcher B. Racial disparities in pedestrian-related injury hospitalizations in the United States. BMC Public Health. 2020;20(1):1459. [PMC free article: PMC7519548] [PubMed: 32977801]
• Hanna-Attisha M, LaChance J, Sadler RC, Schnepp AC. Elevated blood lead levels in children associated with the Flint drinking water crisis: A spatial analysis of risk and public health response. American Journal of Public Health. 2016;106(2):283–290. [PMC free article: PMC4985856] [PubMed: 26691115]
• Harvard Law Review. Chapter 4: Aloha á āina: Native Hawaiian land restitution. Harvard Law Review. 2020;133(6):2148–2171.
• Heaps W, Abramsohn E, Skillen E. Health Affairs Policy Brief: Public Transportation in the U.S.: A Driver of Health and Equity. 2021. [March 2, 2023]. https://www​.healthaffairs​.org/do/10.1377/hpb20210630​.810356/full​/health-affairs-brief-public-transportation-health-equity-heaps-1632491696172.pdf .
• HHS (Department of Health and Human Services). Healthy People 2030: Promote the Health and Safety of People at Work. [May 30, 2023]. n.d. https://health​.gov/healthypeople​/objectives-and-data​/browse-objectives/workplace .
• Hiraishi K. 100 Years of Hawaiian Home Lands Creates Generational Wealth for Some, Lost Opportunity for Many. 2021. [May 21, 2023]. https://www​.hawaiipublicradio​.org/local-news​/2021-07-09/100th-anniversary-of-the-hawaiian-homes-commission-act .
• Hoffman JS, Shandas V, Pendleton N. The effects of historical housing policies on resident exposure to intra-urban heat: A study of 108 U.S. urban areas. Climate. 2020;8(1):12.
• Hoffman JS, Shandas V, Johnson L. Community science for the climate win: An equity-based framework for understanding and acting on extreme urban heat. In: Shandas V, Hellman D, editors. Collaborating for climate equity: Researcher–practitioner partnerships in the Americas. New York, NY: Routledge; 2022.
• Hoss A. Federal Indian law as a structural determinant of health. Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics. 2019;47(S4):34–42. [PubMed: 31955695]
• Howell B. Exploiting race and space: Concentrated subprime lending as housing discrimination. California Law Review. 2006;94(1):101–147.
• Hsu A, Sheriff G, Chakraborty T, Manya D. Disproportionate exposure to urban heat island intensity across major U.S. cities. Nature Communications. 2021;12(1):2721. [PMC free article: PMC8149665] [PubMed: 34035248]
• Huang CC, Taylor R. Any federal infrastructure package should boost investment in low-income communities. Washington, DC: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities; 2019.
• HUD (Department of Housing and Urban Development). 2023 budget in brief. Washington, DC: Department of Housing and Urban Development; 2022.
• HUD. HUD Announces $568 Million Available to Address Lead-Based Paint and Additional Housing-Related Hazards. 2023. [May 23, 2023]. https://www​.hud.gov/press​/press_releases_media_advisories​/hud_no_23_012 .
• HUD. Housing Choice Vouchers Fact Sheet. [March 14, 2023]. n.d.-a. https://www​.hud.gov/topics​/housing_choice​_voucher_program_section_8#hcv02 .
• HUD. Moving to Opportunity for Fair Housing. [March 17, 2023]. n.d.-b. https://www​.hud.gov/programdescription​/mto .
• Hwang J, Ding L. Unequal displacement: Gentrification, racial stratification, and residential destinations in Philadelphia. American Journal of Sociology. 2020;126(2):354–406.
• Hymel K. If you build it, they will drive: Measuring induced demand for vehicle travel in urban areas. Transport Policy. 2019;76:57–66.
• IOM (Institute of Medicine). Damp indoor spaces and health. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2004. [PubMed: 25009878]
• IOM. The future of disability in America. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2007. [PubMed: 20669428]
• Jacobs DE. Environmental health disparities in housing. American Journal of Public Health. 2011;101(S1):S115–S122. [PMC free article: PMC3222490] [PubMed: 21551378]
• Jadow BM, Hu L, Zou J, Labovitz D, Ibeh C, Ovbiagele B, Esenwa C. Historical redlining, social determinants of health, and stroke prevalence in communities in New York City. JAMA Network Open. 2023;6(4):e235875. [PMC free article: PMC10077098] [PubMed: 37017965]
• Jampel C. Intersections of disability justice, racial justice and environmental justice. Environmental Sociology. 2018;4(1):122–135.
• JCHS (Joint Center for Housing Studies). American’ s rental housing 2022. Cambridge, MA: Joint Center for Housing Studies of Harvard University; 2022.
• Jennings V, Johnson Gaither C, Schulterbrandt Gragg R. Promoting environmental justice through urban green space access: A synopsis. Environmental Justice. 2012;5(1):1–7.
• Jernigan VBB, Huyser KR, Valdes J, Simonds VW. Food insecurity among American Indians and Alaska Natives: A national profile using the Current Population Survey—Food Security Supplement. Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition. 2017;12(1):1–10. [PMC free article: PMC5422031] [PubMed: 28491205]
• Johnson R. Defining a socially disadvantaged farmer or rancher (SDFR): In brief. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service; 2021.
• Johnson R. Farm bill primer: Support for native agricultural producers. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service; 2022.
• Johnson R, Monke J. What is the Farm Bill? Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service; 2023.
• Karner A, London J, Rowangould D, Manaugh K. From transportation equity to transportation justice: Within, through, and beyond the state. Journal of Planning Literature. 2020;35(4):440–459.
• Katz L. A racist past, a flooded future: Formerly redlined areas have $107 billion worth of homes facing high flood risk—25% more than non-redlined areas. Seattle, WA: Redfin Corporation; 2021.
• Kaufman P, Dicken C, Williams R. Measuring access to healthful, affordable food in American Indian and Alaska Native tribal areas. Washington, DC: Economic Research Service, Department of Agriculture; 2014.
• Kay J, Katz C. Scientific American. Jun 4, 2012. Pollution, poverty and people of color: Living with industry.
• Kayden JS. National land-use planning and regulation in the United States: Understanding its fundamental importance. In: Alterman R, editor. National-level planning in democratic countries: An international comparison of city and regional policy-making. Liverpool, UK: Liverpool University Press; 2001. pp. 43–64.
• Kim KH, Kabir E, Jahan SA. Exposure to pesticides and the associated human health effects. Science of the Total Environment. 2017;575:525–535. [PubMed: 27614863]
• Krahn GL, Walker DK, Correa-De-Araujo R. Persons with disabilities as an unrecognized health disparity population. American Journal of Public Health. 2015;105(S2):S198–S206. [PMC free article: PMC4355692] [PubMed: 25689212]
• Lane HM, Morello-Frosch R, Marshall JD, Apte JS. Historical redlining is associated with present-day air pollution disparities in U.S. cities. Environmental Science & Technology Letters. 2022;9(4):345–350. [PMC free article: PMC9009174] [PubMed: 35434171]
• Lee EK, Donley G, Ciesielski TH, Gill I, Yamoah O, Roche A, Martinez R, Freedman DA. Health outcomes in redlined versus non-redlined neighborhoods: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Social Science & Medicine. 2022;294:114696. [PubMed: 34995988]
• Levy DK, Comey J, Padilla S. In the face of gentrification: Case studies of local efforts to mitigate displacement. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute; 2006.
• Liebman AK, Wiggins MF, Fraser C, Levin J, Sidebottom J, Arcury TA. Occupational health policy and immigrant workers in the agriculture, forestry, and fishing sector. American Journal of Industrial Medicine. 2013;56(8):975–984. [PubMed: 23606108]
• Liu J, Clark LP, Bechle MJ, Hajat A, Kim SY, Robinson AL, Sheppard L, Szpiro AA, Marshall JD. Disparities in air pollution exposure in the United States by race/ethnicity and income, 1990–2010. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2021;129(12):127005. [PMC free article: PMC8672803] [PubMed: 34908495]
• Locke DH, Hall B, Grove JM, Pickett STA, Ogden LA, Aoki C, Boone CG, O’Neil-Dunne JPM. Residential housing segregation and urban tree canopy in 37 U.S. cities. NPJ Urban Sustainability. 2021;1(1):15.
• Los Angeles County Department of Public Health. Social determinants of health: Housing and health in Los Angeles County. Los Angeles County, CA: Los Angeles County Department of Public Health; 2015.
• Maillacheruvu SU. The historical determinants of food insecurity in native communities. Washington, DC: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities; 2022.
• Maqbool N, Viveiros J, Ault M. The impacts of affordable housing on health: A research summary. Washington, DC: Center for Housing Policy, National Housing Conference; 2015.
• Martin-Proctor K. Paper presented at Meeting 3, Part 2: Committee on the Review of Federal Policies That Contribute to Racial and Ethnic Health Inequities. Aug 1, 2022. Presentation to the Committee on the Review of Federal Policies That Contribute to Racial and Ethnic Health Inequities.
• Mazzara A. Federal rental assistance provides affordable homes for vulnerable people in all types of communities. Washington, DC: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities; 2017.
• Mikati I, Benson AF, Luben TJ, Sacks JD, Richmond-Bryant J. Disparities in distribution of particulate matter emission sources by race and poverty status. American Journal of Public Health. 2018;108(4):480–485. [PMC free article: PMC5844406] [PubMed: 29470121]
• Miletić M, Shahine F, Sarkar M, Quandt A. A Native American perspective on sustainable and resilient infrastructure in southern California. Sustainability. 2022;14(19):12811.
• Mitchell B, Franco J. HOLC “redlining” maps: The persistent structure of segregation and economic inequality. Washington, DC: National Community Reinvestment Coalition; 2018.
• Mogridge MJH. The self-defeating nature of urban road capacity policy: A review of theories, disputes and available evidence. Transport Policy. 1997;4(1):5–23.
• Mohai P, Saha R. Which came first, people or pollution? Assessing the disparate siting and post-siting demographic change hypotheses of environmental injustice. Environmental Research Letters. 2015;10(11):115008.
• Mohai P, Pellow D, Roberts JT. Environmental justice. Annual Review of Environment and Resources. 2009;34(1):405–430.
• Montgomery D. Low-Income People of Color Bear Brunt of Rising Pedestrian Deaths. 2021. [March 2, 2023]. https://www​.pewtrusts​.org/en/research-and-analysis​/blogs/stateline​/2021/07/02/low-income-people-of-color-bear-brunt-of-rising-pedestrian-deaths .
• Moyce S, Mitchell D, Armitage T, Tancredi D, Joseph J, Schenker M. Heat strain, volume depletion and kidney function in California agricultural workers. Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 2017;74(6):402–409. [PMC free article: PMC5771643] [PubMed: 28093502]
• Mueller JT, Gasteyer S. The widespread and unjust drinking water and clean water crisis in the United States. Nature Communications. 2021;12(1):3544. [PMC free article: PMC8219686] [PubMed: 34158491]
• NACTO (National Association of City Transportation Officials). Transit street design guide: Universal design elements. New York, NY: National Association of City Transportation Officials; 2016.
• Nardone A, Rudolph KE, Morello-Frosch R, Casey JA. Redlines and greenspace: The relationship between historical redlining and 2010 greenspace across the United States. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2021;129(1):017006. [PMC free article: PMC7839347] [PubMed: 33502254]
• NASEM (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine). Exploring data and metrics of value at the intersection of health care and transportation: Proceedings of a workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2016a. [PubMed: 28045475]
• NASEM. Framing the dialogue on race and ethnicity to advance health equity: Proceedings of a workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2016b. [PubMed: 27831667]
• NASEM. Communities in action: Pathways to health equity. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2017. [PubMed: 28418632]
• NASEM. People living with disabilities: Health equity, health disparities, and health literacy: Proceedings of a workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2018a. [PubMed: 30252234]
• NASEM. Permanent supportive housing: Evaluating the evidence for improving health outcomes among people experiencing chronic homelessness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2018b. [PubMed: 30148580]
• NASEM. Framing the challenge of urban flooding in the United States. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2019a. [PubMed: 31091058]
• NASEM. Vibrant and healthy kids: Aligning science, practice, and policy to advance health equity. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2019b. [PubMed: 31855338]
• NASEM. Racial equity addendum to critical issues in transportation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2021.
• NASEM. Racial equity, Black America, and public transportation, volume 1: A review of economic, health, and social impacts. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2022a.
• NASEM. Rental eviction and the COVID-19 pandemic: Averting a looming crisis. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2022b.
• National Archives. National Interstate and Defense Highways Act (1956). 2022. [March 2, 2023]. https://www​.archives​.gov/milestone-documents​/national-interstate-and-defense-highways-act .
• National Endowment for the Arts. Disability design: Summary report from a field scan. Washington, DC: National Endowment for the Arts; 2021.
• National Housing Law Project. An advocate’ s guide to tenants’ rights in the Low-Income Housing Tax Credit Program. San Francisco, CA: National Housing Law Project; 2021.
• National Integrated Heat Health Information System. Mapping Campaigns. [March 13, 2023]. n.d. https://www​.heat.gov​/pages/mapping-campaigns .
• National Low Income Housing Coalition. NAHASDA Reauthorization Reintroduced in Senate. 2021. [March 2, 2023]. https://nlihc​.org/resource​/nahasda-reauthorization-reintroduced-senate .
• National Low Income Housing Coalition. Reforms to the low-income housing tax credit. Washington, DC: National Low Income Housing Coalition; 2022.
• NBER (National Bureau of Economic Research). Moving to Opportunity (MTO) for Fair Housing Demonstration Project. [March 17, 2023]. n.d. http://www2​.nber.org/mtopublic/
• NCAI (National Congress of American Indians). Fiscal year 2022 Indian country budget request: Restoring promises. Washington, DC: National Congress of American Indians; 2021.
• NCAI. Housing & Infrastructure. [March 2, 2023]. n.d. https://www​.ncai.org​/policy-issues/economicdevelopment-commerce​/housing-infrastructure .
• NCSL (National Conference of State Legislatures). State policy options for green infrastructure. Denver, CO: National Conference of State Legislatures; 2022.
• Newman KL, Leon JS, Newman LS. Estimating occupational illness, injury, and mortality in food production in the United States: A farm-to-table analysis. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 2015;57(7):718–725. [PMC free article: PMC4494896] [PubMed: 25970031]
• Newport Partners and ARES Consulting. Durability by design: A professional’ s guide to durable home design. Washington, DC: Office of Policy Development and Research, Department of Housing and Urban Development; 2015.
• Nikolaus CJ, Johnson S, Benally T, Maudrie T, Henderson A, Nelson K, Lane T, Segrest V, Ferguson GL, Buchwald D, Blue Bird Jernigan V, Sinclair K. Food insecurity among American Indian and Alaska Native people: A scoping review to inform future research and policy needs. Advances in Nutrition. 2022;13(5):1566–1583. [PMC free article: PMC9526849] [PubMed: 35092417]
• NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health). Occupational Health Equity. 2019. [March 3, 2023]. https://www​.cdc.gov/niosh​/programs/ohe/default.html .
• NIOSH and ASSE (American Society for Safety Engineers). Overlapping vulnerabilities: The occupational safety and health of young workers in small construction firms. Cincinnati, OH: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2015.
• Nowak DJ, Crane DE, Stevens JC. Air pollution removal by urban trees and shrubs in the United States. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 2006;4(3):115–123.
• NSAC (National Sustainable Agriculture Coalition). Racial Equity in the Farm Bill: Context and Foundations. 2017. [March 2, 2023]. https:​//sustainableagriculture​.net/blog/racial-equity-in-the-farm-bill/
• NSAC. 2023 Farm Bill platform. Washington, DC: National Sustainable Agriculture Coalition; 2023.
• O’Regan KM. Commentary: A federal perspective on gentrification. Cityscape. 2016;18(3):151–162.
• Okechukwu CA, Souza K, Davis KD, de Castro AB. Discrimination, harassment, abuse, and bullying in the workplace: Contribution of workplace injustice to occupational health disparities. American Journal of Industrial Medicine. 2014;57(5):573–586. [PMC free article: PMC3884002] [PubMed: 23813664]
• Ornelas I, Fung W, Gabbard S, Carroll D. Findings from the National Agricultural Workers Survey (NAWS) 2017–2018: A demographic and employment profile of United States farmworkers. Rockville, MD: JBS International; 2021.
• OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration). Agricultural Operations: Hazards & Controls. [March 3, 2023]. n.d.-a. https://www​.osha.gov​/agricultural-operations/hazards .
• OSHA. OSH Act of 1970: Sec. 2: Congressional Findings and Purpose. [March 15, 2023]. n.d.-b. https://www​.osha.gov​/laws-regs/oshact/section_2 .
• Parker E, Griffith Hotvedt C, VanPool J, Case K, Zook MB, Wilkie S, Damaso J, Coutu K. Gaining ground: A report on the 2018 Farm Bill successes for Indian country and opportunities for 2023. Prior Lake, MN: Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community; 2022.
• Paul J. The Denver Post. Apr 22, 2016. Navajo president says farmers continue to struggle after Gold King spill.
• Perez R. ProPublica. May 26, 2021a. The U.S. broke its promise to return land to Hawaiians. My family knows something about land loss.
• Perez R. ProPublica. May 7, 2021b. The U.S. owes Hawaiians millions of dollars worth of land. Congress helped make sure the debt wasn’t paid.
• Perry AM, Harshbarger D. America’s formerly redlined neighborhoods have changed, and so must solutions to rectify them. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution; 2019.
• Pflipsen M, Zenchenko Y. Nutrition for oral health and oral manifestations of poor nutrition and unhealthy habits. General Dentistry. 2017;65(6):36–43. [PubMed: 29099364]
• Pindus N, Kingsley GT, Biess J, Levy D, Simington J, Hayes C. Urban Institute. Housing needs of American Indians and Alaska Natives in tribal areas: A report from the assessment of American Indian, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian housing needs. Washington, DC: Office of Policy Development and Research, Department of Housing and Urban Development; 2017.
• Pineda VS, Meyer S, Cruz JP. The inclusion imperative. Forging an inclusive new urban agenda. The Journal of Public Space. 2017;2(4):1–20.
• Raifman MA, Choma EF. Disparities in activity and traffic fatalities by race/ethnicity. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2022;63(2):160–167. [PubMed: 35868815]
• Ray R, Perry AM, Harshbarger D, Elizondo S, Gibbons A. Homeownership, racial segregation, and policy solutions to racial wealth. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution; 2021.
• Reft R. The Washington Post. Jan 19, 2023. We mythologize highways, but they’ve damaged communities of color.
• Reynolds CCO, Harris MA, Teschke K, Cripton PA, Winters M. The impact of transportation infrastructure on bicycling injuries and crashes: A review of the literature. Environmental Health. 2009;8(1):47. [PMC free article: PMC2776010] [PubMed: 19845962]
• Rho HJ, Brown H, Fremstad S. A basic demographic profile of workers in frontline industries. Washington, DC: Center for Economic and Policy Research; 2020.
• Rhone A, Ver Ploeg M, Williams R, Breneman V. Understanding low-income and low-access census tracts across the nation: Subnational and subpopulation estimates of access to healthy food. Washington, DC: Economic Reserch Service, Department of Agriculture; 2019.
• Rhone A, Williams R, Dicken C. Low-income and low-foodstore-access census tracts, 2015-19. Washington, DC: Economic Research Service, Department of Agriculture; 2022.
• Rollston R, Galea S. COVID-19 and the social determinants of health. American Journal of Health Promotion. 2020;34(6):687–689. [PubMed: 32551932]
• Romanello M, Di Napoli C, Drummond P, Green C, Kennard H, Lampard P, Scamman D, Arnell N, Ayeb-Karlsson S, Ford LB, Belesova K, Bowen K, Cai W, Callaghan M, Campbell-Lendrum D, Chambers J, van Daalen KR, Dalin C, Dasandi N, Dasgupta S, Davies M, Dominguez-Salas P, Dubrow R, Ebi KL, Eckelman M, Ekins P, Escobar LE, Georgeson L, Graham H, Gunther SH, Hamilton I, Hang Y, Hänninen R, Hartinger S, He K, Hess JJ, Hsu SC, Jankin S, Jamart L, Jay O, Kelman I, Kiesewetter G, Kinney P, Kjellstrom T, Kniveton D, Lee JKW, Lemke B, Liu Y, Liu Z, Lott M, Batista ML, Lowe R, MacGuire F, Sewe MO, Martinez-Urtaza J, Maslin M, McAllister L, McGushin A, McMichael C, Mi Z, Milner J, Minor K, Minx JC, Mohajeri N, Moradi-Lakeh M, Morrissey K, Munzert S, Murray KA, Neville T, Nilsson M, Obradovich N, O’Hare MB, Oreszczyn T, Otto M, Owfi F, Pearman O, Rabbaniha M, Robinson EJZ, Rocklöv J, Salas RN, Semenza JC, Sherman JD, Shi L, Shumake-Guillemot J, Silbert G, Sofiev M, Springmann M, Stowell J, Tabatabaei M, Taylor J, Triñanes J, Wagner F, Wilkinson P, Winning M, Yglesias-González M, Zhang S, Gong P, Montgomery H, Costello A. The 2022 report of the Lancet countdown on health and climate change: Health at the mercy of fossil fuels. The Lancet. 2022;400(10363):1619–1654. [PubMed: 36306815]
• Rothstein R. The color of law: A forgotten history of how our government segregated America. New York, NY: Liveright Publishing Corporation; 2017.
• Rural Health Information Hub. Reconnecting Communities Pilot Discretionary Grant Program. [March 2, 2023]. n.d. https://www​.ruralhealthinfo​.org/funding/5593 .
• Salvatore A, Bradman A, Castorina R, Camacho J, Lopez J, Barr D, Snyder J, Jewell N, Eskenazi B. Occupational behaviors and farmworkers’ pesticide exposure: Findings from a study in Monterey County, California. American Journal of Industrial Medicine. 2008;51:782–794. [PMC free article: PMC2605684] [PubMed: 18702096]
• Sard B, Cunningham M, Greenstein R. Helping young children move out of poverty by creating a new type of rental voucher. Washington, DC: U.S. Partnership on Mobility from Poverty; 2018.
• Schaider LA, Swetschinski L, Campbell C, Rudel RA. Environmental justice and drinking water quality: Are there socioeconomic disparities in nitrate levels in U.S. drinking water. Environmental Health. 2019;18(1):3. [PMC free article: PMC6335696] [PubMed: 30651108]
• Schapiro R, Blankenship K, Rosenberg A, Keene D. The effects of rental assistance on housing stability, quality, autonomy, and affordability. Housing Policy Debate. 2022;32(3):456–472. [PMC free article: PMC9173361] [PubMed: 35685650]
• Schwartz MA. The 574 federally recognized Indian tribes in the United States. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service; 2023.
• Seabury SA, Terp S, Bioden LI. Racial and ethnic differences in the frequency of workplace injuries and prevalence of work-related disability. Health Affairs. 2017;36(2):266–273. [PMC free article: PMC6198680] [PubMed: 28167715]
• Seligman HK, Berkowitz SA. Aligning programs and policies to support food security and public health goals in the United States. Annual Review of Public Health. 2019;40:319–337. [PMC free article: PMC6784838] [PubMed: 30444684]
• Senate Committee on Indian Affairs. Schatz, Murkowski Lead Committee Passage of Bipartisan Bill to Advance Native American Housing Programs. 2022. [March 2, 2023]. https://www​.indian.senate​.gov/news/press-release​/schatz-murkowski-lead-committee-passage-bipartisan-bill-advance-native-american .
• Senate HELP Committee. Fulfilling the promise: Overcoming persistent barriers to economic self-sufficiency for people with disabilities: Majority committee staff report. Washington, DC: U.S. Senate Committe on Health, Education, Labor and Pensions; 2014.
• Shaker Y, Grineski SE, Collins TW, Flores AB. Redlining, racism and food access in U.S. urban cores. Agriculture and Human Values. 2022;40:101–112. [PMC free article: PMC9303837] [PubMed: 35891801]
• Shandas V, Hellman D. Toward an equitable distribution of urban green spaces for people and landscapes: An opportunity for Portland’s green grid. In: Nakamura F, editor. Green infrastructure and climate change adaptation: Function, implementation and governance. Singapore: Springer Nature; 2022. pp. 289–301.
• Shannon KL, Kim BF, McKenzie SE, Lawrence RS. Food system policy, public health, and human rights in the United States. Annual Review of Public Health. 2015;36(1):151–173. [PubMed: 25785888]
• Shilling JD, Chomitz K, Flanagan AE. The nexus between infrastructure and environment. Washington, DC: The World Bank; 2007.
• Shirley C. Spending on Infrastructure and Investment. 2017. [March 2, 2023]. https://www​.cbo.gov/publication/52463 .
• Smart Growth America. The Complete Streets policy framework. Washington, DC: Smart Growth America; 2023.
• Smart Growth America. Complete Streets. [May 28, 2023]. n.d. https:​//smartgrowthamerica​.org/what-are-complete-streets/
• Smith GS, Breakstone H, Dean LT, Thorpe RJ Jr. Impacts of gentrification on health in the U.S.: A systematic review of the literature. Journal of Urban Health. 2020;97(6):845–856. [PMC free article: PMC7704880] [PubMed: 32829469]
• Solomon D, Maxwell C, Castro A. Systemic inequality: Displacement, exclusion, and segregation:How America’s housing system undermines wealth building in communities of color. Washington, DC: Center for American Progress; 2019.
• Spencer-Hwang R, Montgomery S, Dougherty M, Valladares J, Rangel S, Gleason P, Soret S. Experiences of a rail yard community: Life is hard. Journal of Environmental Health. 2014;77(2):8–17. [PMC free article: PMC4486117] [PubMed: 25226779]
• Sprunt B. Here’s What’s Included in the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. 2021. [March 23, 2023]. https://www​.npr.org/2021​/06/24/1009923468​/heres-whats-included-in-the-infrastructure-deal-that-biden-struck-with-senators .
• Switzer D, Teodoro MP. The color of drinking water: Class, race, ethnicity, and Safe Drinking Water Act compliance. Journal AWWA. 2017;109(9):40–45.
• Szto M. Real estate agents as agents of social change: Redlining, reverse redlining, and greenlining. Seattle Journal for Social Justice. 2013;12(1):1–59.
• Tax Policy Center. The Tax Policy Center’ s briefing book: A citizen’s guide to the tax system and tax policy. Washington, DC: Urban-Brookings Tax Policy Center; 2020.
• Taylor LT. Health Affairs Policy Brief: Housing and Health: An Overview of the Literature. 2018. [February 28, 2023]. https://www​.healthaffairs​.org/do/10.1377/hpb20180313​.396577/full/
• Tebor C. Los Angeles Times. Jun 26, 2021. On Native American reservations, the push for more clean water and sanitation.
• Teodoro MP, Haider M, Switzer D. U.S. environmental policy implementation on tribal lands: Trust, neglect, and justice. Policy Studies Journal. 2018;46(1):37–59.
• Tessum CW, Paolella DA, Chambliss SE, Apte JS, Hill JD, Marshall JD. PM2.5 polluters disproportionately and systemically affect people of color in the United States. Science Advances. 2021;7(18):eabf4491. [PubMed: 33910895]
• Thacker S, Adshead D, Fantini C, Palmer R, Ghosal R, Adeoti T, Morgan G, Stratton-Short S. Infrastructure for climate action. Copenhagen, Denmark: United Nations Office for Project Services; 2021.
• Thorndike AN, Gardner CD, Kendrick KB, Seligman HK, Yaroch AL, Gomes AV, Ivy KN, Scarmo S, Cotwright CJ, Schwartz MB. Strengthening U.S. food policies and programs to promote equity in nutrition security: A policy statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2022;145(24):e1077–e1093. [PubMed: 35535604]
• Turner MA, Greene S. Causes and consequences of separate and unequal neighborhoods. Washington, DC: Urban Institute; n.d.
• Union of Concerned Scientists. Leveling the fields: Creating farming opportunities for Black people, Indigenous people, and other people of color. Cambridge, MA: Union of Concerned Scientists; 2020.
• U.S. Commission on Civil Rights. Broken promises: Continuing federal funding shortfall for Native Americans. Washington, DC: U.S. Commission on Civil Rights; 2018.
• USDA (United States Department of Agriculture). Food Access Research Atlas: Documentation. 2022a. [March 2, 2023]. https://www​.ers.usda​.gov/data-products/food-access-research-atlas/documentation/
• USDA. Food Security in the U.S.: Definitions of Food Security. 2022b. [March 2, 2023]. https://www​.ers.usda​.gov/topics/food-nutrition-assistance​/food-security-in-the-u-s​/definitions-of-food-security/
• USDA. Food Security in the U.S.: Key Statistics and Graphics. 2022c. [March 2, 2023]. https://www​.ers.usda​.gov/topics/food-nutrition-assistance​/food-security-in-the-u-s​/key-statistics-graphics/
• USDA. Socially Disadvantaged, Beginning, Limited Resource, and Female Farmers and Ranchers. 2022d. [March 2, 2023]. https://www​.ers.usda​.gov/topics/farm-economy​/socially-disadvantaged-beginning-limited-resource-and-female-farmers-and-ranchers/
• USDA. 1890 Land-Grant Institutions Programs. [March 2, 2023]. n.d. https://www​.nifa.usda​.gov/grants/about-programs​/program-operational-areas​/1890-land-grant-institutions-programs .
• USDA Equity Commission. Interim report 2023: Recommendations made to the U.S. Department of Agriculture to advance equity for all. Washington, DC: USDA Equity Commission; 2023.
• USGCRP (United States Global Change Research Program). Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II. Washington, DC: U.S. Global Change Research Program; 2018.
• U.S. Water Alliance and DigDeep. Closing the water access gap in the United States: A national action plan. Washington, DC: U.S. Water Alliance; 2019.
• Velasco G. How Transportation Planners Can Advance Racial Equity and Environmental Justice. 2020. [March 2, 2023]. https://www​.urban.org​/urban-wire/how-transportation-planners-can-advance-racial-equity-and-environmental-justice .
• Volker JMB, Lee AE, Handy S. Induced vehicle travel in the environmental review process. Transportation Research Record. 2020;2674(7):468–479.
• Walker M. The New York Times. May 25, 2023. Highways have sliced through city after city. Can the U.S. undo the damage.
• Ward MH, Jones RR, Brender JD, de Kok TM, Weyer PJ, Nolan BT, Villanueva CM, van Breda SG. Drinking water nitrate and human health: An updated review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2018;15(7):1557. [PMC free article: PMC6068531] [PubMed: 30041450]
• Webber JL, Fletcher TD, Cunningham L, Fu G, Butler D, Burns MJ. Is green infrastructure a viable strategy for managing urban surface water flooding? Urban Water Journal. 2020;17(7):598–608.
• Weingart E. The New York Times. Jan 6, 2023. Widening highways doesn’t fix traffic. So why do we keep doing it.
• Weitzman M, Baten A, Rosenthal DG, Hoshino R, Tohn E, Jacobs DE. Housing and child health. Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care. 2013;43(8):187–224. [PubMed: 23953987]
• The White House. Fact Sheet: The Biden-Harris Lead Pipe and Paint Action Plan. 2021. [May 23, 2023]. https://www​.whitehouse​.gov/briefing-room​/statements-releases​/2021/12/16/fact-sheet-the-biden-harris-lead-pipe-and-paint-action-plan/
• The White House. Fact Sheet: Inflation Reduction Act Advances Environmental Justice. 2022. [May 28, 2023]. https://www​.whitehouse​.gov/briefing-room​/statements-releases​/2022/08/17/fact-sheet-inflation-reduction-act-advances-environmental-justice/
• Williams DR, Collins C. Racial residential segregation: A fundamental cause of racial disparities in health. Public Health Reports. 2001;116(5):404–416. [PMC free article: PMC1497358] [PubMed: 12042604]
• Williams DR, Lawrence JA, Davis BA. Racism and health: Evidence and needed research. Annual Review of Public Health. 2019;40:105–125. [PMC free article: PMC6532402] [PubMed: 30601726]
• Zaru D. City National Bank to Pay $31M in Redlining Settlement with DOJ. 2023. [May 22, 2023]. https://abcnews​.go.com​/US/city-national-bank-pay-31m-redlining-settlement-doj​/story?id=96400698 .
• Zhao JZ, Fonseca-Sarmiento C, Tan J. America’s trillion-dollar repair bill: Capital budgeting and the disclosure of state infrastructure needs. New York, NY: The Volcker Alliance; 2019.
• Zhu Z, Ren J, Liu X. Green infrastructure provision for environmental justice: Application of the equity index in Guangzhou, China. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 2019;46:126443.
• Zölch T, Maderspacher J, Wamsler C, Pauleit S. Using green infrastructure for urban climate-proofing: An evaluation of heat mitigation measures at the micro-scale. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 2016;20:305–316.
• Zuk M, Bierbaum AH, Chapple K, Gorska K, Loukaitou-Sideris A, Ong P, Thomas T. Working paper 2015-05: Gentrification, displacement and the role of public investment: A literature review. San Francisco, CA: Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco; 2015.
• Zuliaga D. How a 40-Year-Old Federal Law Is Speeding Gentrification. 2019. [May 23, 2023]. https://www​.politico​.com/agenda/story/2019​/07/24/gentrification-credit-discrimination-000937/