U.S. Preventive Services Task Force, Bibbins-Domingo K, Grossman DC, et al. Screening for Lipid Disorders in Children and Adolescents: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2016;316(6):625–33. PMID: 27532917. 10.1001/jama.2016.9852 [PubMed: 27532917] [CrossRef]

Lozano P, Henrikson NB, Dunn J, et al. Lipid Screening in Childhood and Adolescence for Detection of Familial Hypercholesterolemia: A Systematic Evidence Review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Evidence Synthesis No. 141. AHRQ Publication No. 14-05204-EF-2. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2016. [PubMed: 27559556]

Lozano P, Henrikson NB, Morrison CC, et al. Lipid Screening in Childhood for Detection of Multifactorial Dyslipidemia: A Systematic Evidence Review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Evidence Synthesis No. 140. AHRQ Publication No14-05204-EF-1. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2016. [PubMed: 27559550]

de Ferranti SD, Steinberger J, Ameduri R, et al. Cardiovascular Risk Reduction in High-Risk Pediatric Patients: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2019;139(13):e603–e34. PMID: 30798614. 10.1161/CIR.0000000000000618 [PubMed: 30798614] [CrossRef]

Fahed AC, Nemer GM. Familial hypercholesterolemia: the lipids or the genes? Nutr Metab (Lond). 2011;8(1):23. PMID: 21513517. 10.1186/1743-7075-8-23 [PMC free article: PMC3104361] [PubMed: 21513517] [CrossRef]

Zech LA, Jr., Hoeg JM. Correlating corneal arcus with atherosclerosis in familial hypercholesterolemia. Lipids health dis. 2008;7:7. PMID: 18331643. 10.1186/1476-511X-7-7 [PMC free article: PMC2279133] [PubMed: 18331643] [CrossRef]

Hovingh GK, Davidson MH, Kastelein JJ, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of familial hypercholesterolaemia. Eur Heart J. 2013;34(13):962–71. PMID: 23416791. 10.1093/eurheartj/eht015 [PubMed: 23416791] [CrossRef]

Brown EE, Sturm AC, Cuchel M, et al. Genetic testing in dyslipidemia: A scientific statement from the National Lipid Association. J Clin Lipidol. 2020;14(4):398–413. PMID: 32507592. 10.1016/j.jacl.2020.04.011 [PubMed: 32507592] [CrossRef]

Benito-Vicente A, Uribe KB, Jebari S, et al. Familial Hypercholesterolemia: The Most Frequent Cholesterol Metabolism Disorder Caused Disease. Int J Mol Sci. 2018;19(11). PMID: 30388787. 10.3390/ijms19113426 [PMC free article: PMC6275065] [PubMed: 30388787] [CrossRef]

Damgaard D, Larsen ML, Nissen PH, et al. The relationship of molecular genetic to clinical diagnosis of familial hypercholesterolemia in a Danish population. Atherosclerosis. 2005;180(1):155–60. PMID: 15823288. 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2004.12.001 [PubMed: 15823288] [CrossRef]

Khera AV, Won HH, Peloso GM, et al. Diagnostic Yield and Clinical Utility of Sequencing Familial Hypercholesterolemia Genes in Patients With Severe Hypercholesterolemia. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2016;67(22):2578–89. PMID: 27050191. 10.1016/j.jacc.2016.03.520 [PMC free article: PMC5405769] [PubMed: 27050191] [CrossRef]

Huijgen R, Kindt I, Defesche JC, et al. Cardiovascular risk in relation to functionality of sequence variants in the gene coding for the low-density lipoprotein receptor: a study among 29,365 individuals tested for 64 specific low-density lipoprotein-receptor sequence variants. Eur Heart J. 2012;33(18):2325–30. PMID: 22390909. 10.1093/eurheartj/ehs038 [PubMed: 22390909] [CrossRef]

Leren TP, Finborud TH, Manshaus TE, et al. Diagnosis of familial hypercholesterolemia in general practice using clinical diagnostic criteria or genetic testing as part of cascade genetic screening. Community Genet. 2008;11(1):26–35. PMID: 18196915. 10.1159/000111637 [PubMed: 18196915] [CrossRef]

Huijgen R, Kindt I, Verhoeven SB, et al. Two years after molecular diagnosis of familial hypercholesterolemia: majority on cholesterol-lowering treatment but a minority reaches treatment goal. PLoS ONE. 2010;5(2):e9220. PMID: 20169164. 10.1371/journal.pone.0009220 [PMC free article: PMC2821409] [PubMed: 20169164] [CrossRef]

Forrest IS, Chaudhary K, Vy HMT, et al. Population-Based Penetrance of Deleterious Clinical Variants. JAMA. 2022;25(4):350–9. PMID: 35076666. 10.1001/jama.2021.23686 [PMC free article: PMC8790667] [PubMed: 35076666] [CrossRef]

Khera AV, Hegele RA. What Is Familial Hypercholesterolemia, and Why Does It Matter? Population-Based Penetrance of Deleterious Clinical Variants. Circulation2020. p. 1760–3. PMID: 32479201. 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.046961 [PMC free article: PMC7299543] [PubMed: 32479201] [CrossRef]

Brunham LR, Ruel I, Khoury E, et al. Familial hypercholesterolemia in Canada: Initial results from the FH Canada national registry. Atherosclerosis. 2018;277:419–24. PMID: 30270080. 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2018.05.040 [PubMed: 30270080] [CrossRef]

Williams RR, Hunt SC, Schumacher MC, et al. Diagnosing heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia using new practical criteria validated by molecular genetics. Am J Cardiol. 1993;72(2):171–6. PMID: 8328379. 10.1016/0002-9149(93)90155-6 [PubMed: 8328379] [CrossRef]

Risk of fatal coronary heart disease in familial hypercholesterolaemia. Scientific Steering Committee on behalf of the Simon Broome Register Group. Bmj. 1991;303(6807):893–6. PMID: 1933004. 10.1136/bmj.303.6807.893 [PMC free article: PMC1671226] [PubMed: 1933004] [CrossRef]

Civeira F, International Panel on Management of Familial H. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. Atherosclerosis. 2004;173(1):55–68. PMID: 15177124. 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2003.11.010 [PubMed: 15177124] [CrossRef]

de Ferranti S, Newburger J. Dyslipidemia in children: Definition, screening, and diagnosis. https://www​.uptodate​.com/contents/dyslipidemia-in-children-definition-screening-and-diagnosis?csi​=cb86ef0a-98c2-44ad-a6f4-5cd5d5901ae4&source​=contentShare. Accessed: Jan 22, 2021.

Gidding SS, Barton BA, Dorgan JA, et al. Higher self-reported physical activity is associated with lower systolic blood pressure: the Dietary Intervention Study in Childhood (DISC). Pediatrics. 2006;118(6):2388–93. PMID: 17142523. 10.1542/peds.2006-1785 [PubMed: 17142523] [CrossRef]

Wong ND, Hei TK, Qaqundah PY, et al. Television viewing and pediatric hypercholesterolemia. Pediatrics. 1992;90(1 Pt 1):75–9. PMID: 1614784. [PubMed: 1614784]

Barker AR, Gracia-Marco L, Ruiz JR, et al. Physical activity, sedentary time, TV viewing, physical fitness and cardiovascular disease risk in adolescents: The HELENA study. Int J Cardiol. 2018;254:303–9. PMID: 29221862. 10.1016/j.ijcard.2017.11.080 [PubMed: 29221862] [CrossRef]

Martinez-Gomez D, Rey-Lopez JP, Chillon P, et al. Excessive TV viewing and cardiovascular disease risk factors in adolescents. The AVENA cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health. 2010;10:274. PMID: 20500845. 10.1186/1471-2458-10-274 [PMC free article: PMC2892447] [PubMed: 20500845] [CrossRef]

Parks EJ, Hellerstein MK. Carbohydrate-induced hypertriacylglycerolemia: historical perspective and review of biological mechanisms. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2000;71(2):412–33. PMID: 10648253. 10.1093/ajcn/71.2.412 [PubMed: 10648253] [CrossRef]

Jarauta E, Bea-Sanz AM, Marco-Benedi V, et al. Genetics of Hypercholesterolemia: Comparison Between Familial Hypercholesterolemia and Hypercholesterolemia Nonrelated to LDL Receptor. Front Genet. 2020;11:554931. PMID: 33343620. 10.3389/fgene.2020.554931 [PMC free article: PMC7744656] [PubMed: 33343620] [CrossRef]

Tamir I, Heiss G, Glueck CJ, et al. Lipid and lipoprotein distributions in white children ages 6-19 yr. The Lipid Research Clinics Program Prevalence Study. J Chronic Dis. 1981;34(1):27–39. PMID: 7451637. 10.1016/0021-9681(81)90079-5 [PubMed: 7451637] [CrossRef]

National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP): highlights of the report of the Expert Panel on Blood Cholesterol Levels in Children and Adolescents. Pediatrics. 1992;89(3):495–501. PMID: 1741227. [PubMed: 1741227]

National Heart Lung and Blood Institute. Expert Panel on Integrated Guidelines for Cardiovascular Health and Risk Reduction in Children and Adolescents. Bethesda, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health; 2012.

Grundy SM, Stone NJ, Bailey AL, et al. 2018 AHA/ACC/AACVPR/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/ADA/AGS/APhA/ASPC/NLA/PCNA Guideline on the Management of Blood Cholesterol: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2019;139(25):e1082–e143. PMID: 30586774. 10.1161/cir.0000000000000625 [PMC free article: PMC7403606] [PubMed: 30586774] [CrossRef]

Lozano P, Henrikson NB, Morrison CC, et al. Lipid Screening in Childhood and Adolescence for Detection of Multifactorial Dyslipidemia: Evidence Report and Systematic Review for the US Preventive Services Task Force. JAMA. 2016;316(6):634–44. PMID: 27532918. 10.1001/jama.2016.6423 [PubMed: 27532918] [CrossRef]

Hu P, Dharmayat KI, Stevens CAT, et al. Prevalence of Familial Hypercholesterolemia Among the General Population and Patients With Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Circulation. 2020;141(22):1742–59. PMID: 32468833. 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.119.044795 [PubMed: 32468833] [CrossRef]

Akioyamen LE, Genest J, Shan SD, et al. Estimating the prevalence of heterozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open. 2017;7(9):e016461. PMID: 28864697. 10.1136/bmjopen-2017-016461 [PMC free article: PMC5588988] [PubMed: 28864697] [CrossRef]

Neil HA, Hammond T, Huxley R, et al. Extent of underdiagnosis of familial hypercholesterolaemia in routine practice: prospective registry study. BMJ. 2000;321(7254):148. PMID: 10894692. 10.1136/bmj.321.7254.148 [PMC free article: PMC27432] [PubMed: 10894692] [CrossRef]

Toft-Nielsen F, Emanuelsson F, Benn M. Familial Hypercholesterolemia Prevalence Among Ethnicities-Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Front Genet2022. PMID: 35186049. 10.3389/fgene.2022.840797 [PMC free article: PMC8850281] [PubMed: 35186049] [CrossRef]

World Health Organization. The Global Health Observatory: Raised cholesterol. https://www​.who.int/data​/gho/indicator-metadata-registry​/imr-details/3236. Accessed: May 3, 2022.

Mohamed-Yassin MS, Baharudin N, Abdul-Razak S, et al. Global prevalence of dyslipidaemia in adult populations: a systematic review protocol. BMJ Open. 2021;11(12):e049662. PMID: 34862282. 10.1136/bmjopen-2021-049662 [PMC free article: PMC8647546] [PubMed: 34862282] [CrossRef]

G. B. D. Risk Factor Collaborators. Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 84 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks for 195 countries and territories, 1990-2017: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. Lancet. 2018;392(10159):1923–94. PMID: 30496105. 10.1016/S0140-6736(18)32225-6 [PMC free article: PMC6227755] [PubMed: 30496105] [CrossRef]

Kusters DM, Wiegman A, Kastelein JJ, et al. Carotid intima-media thickness in children with familial hypercholesterolemia. Circ Res. 2014;114(2):307–10. PMID: 24192652. 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.114.301430 [PubMed: 24192652] [CrossRef]

Wiegman A, de Groot E, Hutten BA, et al. Arterial intima-media thickness in children heterozygous for familial hypercholesterolaemia. Lancet. 2004;363(9406):369–70. PMID: 15070569. 10.1016/S0140-6736(04)15467-6 [PubMed: 15070569] [CrossRef]

Perak AM, Ning H, de Ferranti SD, et al. Long-Term Risk of Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease in US Adults With the Familial Hypercholesterolemia Phenotype. Circulation. 2016;134(1):9–19. PMID: 27358432. 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.116.022335 [PMC free article: PMC4933328] [PubMed: 27358432] [CrossRef]

Versmissen J, Oosterveer DM, Yazdanpanah M, et al. Efficacy of statins in familial hypercholesterolaemia: a long term cohort study. Bmj. 2008;337:a2423. PMID: 19001495. 10.1136/bmj.a2423 [PMC free article: PMC2583391] [PubMed: 19001495] [CrossRef]

Scientific Steering Committee on behalf of the Simon Broome Register Group. Mortality in treated heterozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia: implications for clinical management. Atherosclerosis. 1999;142(1):105–12. PMID: 9920511. [PubMed: 9920511]

Prospective Studies Collaboration, Lewington S, Whitlock G, et al. Blood cholesterol and vascular mortality by age, sex, and blood pressure: a meta-analysis of individual data from 61 prospective studies with 55,000 vascular deaths. Lancet. 2007;370(9602):1829–39. PMID: 18061058. 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61778-4 [PubMed: 18061058] [CrossRef]

U. S. Preventive Services Task Force, Davidson KW, Barry MJ, et al. Aspirin Use to Prevent Cardiovascular Disease: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2022;327(16):1577–84. PMID: 35471505. 10.1001/jama.2022.4983 [PubMed: 35471505] [CrossRef]

Arnett DK, Blumenthal RS, Albert MA, et al. 2019 ACC/AHA Guideline on the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease: Executive Summary: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2019;140(11):e563–e95. PMID: 30879339. 10.1161/CIR.0000000000000677 [PMC free article: PMC8351755] [PubMed: 30879339] [CrossRef]

U. S. Preventive Services Task Force. Statin Use for the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease in Adults. Update in progress. https://www​.uspreventiveservicestaskforce​.org/uspstf/draft-update-summary​/statin-use-primary-prevention-cardiovascular-disease-adults. Accessed: May 3, 2022.

Jacobs DR, Jr., Woo JG, Sinaiko AR, et al. Childhood Cardiovascular Risk Factors and Adult Cardiovascular Events. N Engl J Med. 2022. PMID: 35373933. 10.1056/NEJMoa2109191 [PMC free article: PMC9563825] [PubMed: 35373933] [CrossRef]

Ice CL, Murphy E, Cottrell L, et al. Morbidly obese diagnosis as an indicator of cardiovascular disease risk in children: results from the CARDIAC Project. Int J Pediatr Obes. 2011;6(2):113–9. PMID: 20545480. 10.3109/17477161003792556 [PubMed: 20545480] [CrossRef]

Raman A, Sharma S, Fitch MD, et al. Anthropometric correlates of lipoprotein profile and blood pressure in high BMI African American children. Acta Paediatr. 2010;99(6):912–9. PMID: 20064141. 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2009.01639.x [PubMed: 20064141] [CrossRef]

Perak AM, Ning H, Kit BK, et al. Trends in Levels of Lipids and Apolipoprotein B in US Youths Aged 6 to 19 Years, 1999-2016. JAMA. 2019;321(19):1895–905. PMID: 31112258. 10.1001/jama.2019.4984 [PMC free article: PMC6537842] [PubMed: 31112258] [CrossRef]

Oliosa PR, Zaniqueli DDA, Barbosa MCR, et al. Relationship between body composition and dyslipidemia in children and adolescentes. Cien Saude Colet. 2019;24(10):3743–52. PMID: 31577005. 10.1590/1413-812320182410.17662017 [PubMed: 31577005] [CrossRef]

Oliosa PR, Zaniqueli D, Alvim RO, et al. Body fat percentage is better than indicators of weight status to identify children and adolescents with unfavorable lipid profile. J Pediatr (Rio J). 2019;95(1):112–8. PMID: 29306717. 10.1016/j.jped.2017.11.003 [PubMed: 29306717] [CrossRef]

Interator H, Lebenthal Y, Hoshen M, et al. Distinct Lipoprotein Curves in Normal Weight, Overweight, and Obese Children and Adolescents. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2017;65(6):673–80. PMID: 28691976. 10.1097/MPG.0000000000001674 [PubMed: 28691976] [CrossRef]

Norris AL, Steinberger J, Steffen LM, et al. Circulating oxidized LDL and inflammation in extreme pediatric obesity. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2011;19(7):1415–9. PMID: 21331062. 10.1038/oby.2011.21 [PMC free article: PMC3684410] [PubMed: 21331062] [CrossRef]

Zachariah JP, Shittu T, Wang Y. Lipid temporal trends in normal-weight youth. Am Heart J. 2021;231(1097-6744 (Electronic)):68–72. PMID: 33096104. 10.1016/j.ahj.2020.10.050 [PMC free article: PMC7755735] [PubMed: 33096104] [CrossRef]

Bao W, Srinivasan SR, Valdez R, et al. Longitudinal changes in cardiovascular risk from childhood to young adulthood in offspring of parents with coronary artery disease: the Bogalusa Heart Study. JAMA. 1997;278(21):1749–54. PMID: 9388151. [PubMed: 9388151]

Stone NJ, Levy RI, Fredrickson DS, et al. Coronary artery disease in 116 kindred with familial type II hyperlipoproteinemia. Circulation. 1974;49(3):476–88. PMID: 4813182. 10.1161/01.cir.49.3.476 [PubMed: 4813182] [CrossRef]

Daniels SR. On the US Preventive Services Task Force Statement on Screening for Lipid Disorders in Children and Adolescents: One Step Forward and 2 Steps Sideways. JAMA Pediatr. 2016;170(10):932–4. PMID: 27533098. 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2016.2315 [PubMed: 27533098] [CrossRef]

Nordestgaard BG, Chapman MJ, Humphries SE, et al. Familial hypercholesterolaemia is underdiagnosed and undertreated in the general population: guidance for clinicians to prevent coronary heart disease: consensus statement of the European Atherosclerosis Society. Eur Heart J. 2013;34(45):3478–90a. PMID: 23956253. 10.1093/eurheartj/eht273 [PMC free article: PMC3844152] [PubMed: 23956253] [CrossRef]

deGoma EM, Ahmad ZS, O’Brien EC, et al. Treatment Gaps in Adults With Heterozygous Familial Hypercholesterolemia in the United States: Data From the CASCADE-FH Registry. Circ Cardiovasc Genet. 2016;9(3):240–9. PMID: 27013694. 10.1161/CIRCGENETICS.116.001381 [PMC free article: PMC5315030] [PubMed: 27013694] [CrossRef]

Bright Futures, American Adademy of Pediatrics. Recommendations for Preventive Pediatric Health Care. https://downloads​.aap​.org/AAP/PDF/periodicity_schedule.pdf. Accessed: 4/25/2022.

Louter L, Defesche J, Roeters van Lennep J. Cascade screening for familial hypercholesterolemia: Practical consequences. Atheroscler Suppl. 2017;30:77–85. PMID: 29096865. 10.1016/j.atherosclerosissup.2017.05.019 [PubMed: 29096865] [CrossRef]

Groselj U, Kovac J, Sustar U, et al. Universal screening for familial hypercholesterolemia in children: The Slovenian model and literature review. Atherosclerosis. 2018;277:383–91. PMID: 30270075. 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2018.06.858 [PubMed: 30270075] [CrossRef]

Myers KD, Knowles JW, Staszak D, et al. Precision screening for familial hypercholesterolaemia: a machine learning study applied to electronic health encounter data. Lancet Digit Health. 2019;8:e393–e402. PMID: 33323221. 10.1016/S2589-7500(19)30150-5 [PMC free article: PMC8086528] [PubMed: 33323221] [CrossRef]

McGowan MP, Cuchel M, Ahmed CD, et al. A proof-of-concept study of cascade screening for Familial Hypercholesterolemia in the US, adapted from the Dutch model. Am J Prev Cardiol. 2021;6(100170). PMID: 34327496. 10.1016/j.ajpc.2021.100170 [PMC free article: PMC8315349] [PubMed: 34327496] [CrossRef]

Murabito JM, Nam BH, D’Agostino RB, Sr., et al. Accuracy of offspring reports of parental cardiovascular disease history: the Framingham Offspring Study. Ann Intern Med. 2004;140(6):434–40. PMID: 15023709. 10.7326/0003-4819-140-6-200403160-00010 [PubMed: 15023709] [CrossRef]

Ritchie SK, Murphy EC, Ice C, et al. Universal versus targeted blood cholesterol screening among youth: The CARDIAC project. Pediatrics. 2010;126(2):260–5. PMID: 20624798. 10.1542/peds.2009-2546 [PubMed: 20624798] [CrossRef]

de Ferranti SD, Rodday AM, Mendelson MM, et al. Prevalence of Familial Hypercholesterolemia in the 1999 to 2012 United States National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES). Circulation. 2016;133(11):1067–72. PMID: 26976914. 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.018791 [PubMed: 26976914] [CrossRef]

Cottrell L, John C, Murphy E, et al. Individual-, family-, community-, and policy-level impact of a school-based cardiovascular risk detection screening program for children in underserved, rural areas: the CARDIAC Project. J Obes. 2013;2013:732579.(doi):10.1155/2013/732579. Epub 2013 Jun 5. PMID: 23840946. 10.1155/2013/732579 [PMC free article: PMC3687496] [PubMed: 23840946] [CrossRef] [CrossRef]

Wald DS, Bestwick JP, Wald NJ. Child-Parent Familial Hypercholesterolemia Screening in Primary Care [Author Reply to editorials]. N Engl J Med. 2017;376(5):499–500. PMID: 28146661. 10.1056/NEJMc1615365 [PubMed: 28146661] [CrossRef]

Frontini MG, Srinivasan SR, Xu J, et al. Usefulness of childhood non-high density lipoprotein cholesterol levels versus other lipoprotein measures in predicting adult subclinical atherosclerosis: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Pediatrics. 2008;121(5):924–9. PMID: 18450895. 10.1542/peds.2007-1472 [PubMed: 18450895] [CrossRef]

Brunner FJ, Waldeyer C, Ojeda F, et al. Application of non-HDL cholesterol for population-based cardiovascular risk stratification: results from the Multinational Cardiovascular Risk Consortium. Lancet. 2019;394(10215):2173–83. PMID: 31810609. 10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32519-X [PMC free article: PMC6913519] [PubMed: 31810609] [CrossRef]

Goff DC, Jr., Lloyd-Jones DM, Bennett G, et al. 2013 ACC/AHA guideline on the assessment of cardiovascular risk: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;63(25 Pt B):2935–59. PMID: 24239921. 10.1016/j.jacc.2013.11.005 [PMC free article: PMC4700825] [PubMed: 24239921] [CrossRef]

Nordestgaard BG, Langsted A, Mora S, et al. Fasting Is Not Routinely Required for Determination of a Lipid Profile: Clinical and Laboratory Implications Including Flagging at Desirable Concentration Cutpoints-A Joint Consensus Statement from the European Atherosclerosis Society and European Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine. Clin Chem. 2016;62(7):930–46. PMID: 27235445. 10.1373/clinchem.2016.258897 [PubMed: 27235445] [CrossRef]

Friedewald WT, Levy RI, Fredrickson DS. Estimation of the concentration of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in plasma, without use of the preparative ultracentrifuge. Clin Chem. 1972;18(6):499–502. PMID: 4337382. [PubMed: 4337382]

Sampson M, Ling C, Sun Q, et al. A New Equation for Calculation of Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol in Patients With Normolipidemia and/or Hypertriglyceridemia. JAMA Cardiol. 2020;5(5):540–8. PMID: 32101259. 10.1001/jamacardio.2020.0013 [PMC free article: PMC7240357] [PubMed: 32101259] [CrossRef]

Steiner MJ, Skinner AC, Perrin EM. Fasting might not be necessary before lipid screening: a nationally representative cross-sectional study. Pediatrics. 2011;128(3):463–70. PMID: 21807697. 10.1542/peds.2011-0844 [PMC free article: PMC3164087] [PubMed: 21807697] [CrossRef]

Browne B, Vasquez S. Pediatric dyslipidemias: Prescription medication efficacy and safety. J Clin Lipidol. 2008;2(3):189–201. PMID: 21291737. 10.1016/j.jacl.2008.04.008 [PubMed: 21291737] [CrossRef]

Eiland LS, Luttrell PK. Use of statins for dyslipidemia in the pediatric population. J Pediatr Pharmacol Ther. 2010;15(3):160–72. PMID: 22477808. [PMC free article: PMC3018249] [PubMed: 22477808]

Miller ML, Wright CC, Rodriguez B. Use of Lipid Lowering Medications in Youth. In: Feingold KR, Anawalt B, Boyce A, Chrousos G, de Herder WW, Dhatariya K, et al., editors. Endotext. South Dartmouth (MA)2000.

AMGEN. FDA Approves Repatha® (evolocumab) In Pediatric Patients Age 10 And Older With Heterozygous Familial Hypercholesterolemia. Approval Based on HAUSER-RCT Study Demonstrating a Significant Reduction in LDL-C. Thousand Oaks, CA: Amgen; 2021.

de Ferranti SD, Rodday AM, Parsons SK, et al. Cholesterol Screening and Treatment Practices and Preferences: A Survey of United States Pediatricians. J Pediatr. 2017;185:99–105.e2.(doi):10.1016/j.jpeds.2016.12.078. Epub 7 Feb 13. PMID: 28209292. 10.1016/j.jpeds.2016.12.078 [PubMed: 28209292] [CrossRef] [CrossRef]

Mihalopoulos NL, Stipelman C, Hemond J, et al. Universal Lipid Screening in 9- to 11-Year-Olds Before and After 2011 Guidelines. Acad Pediatr. 2018;18(2):196–9. PMID: 29180296. 10.1016/j.acap.2017.11.006 [PubMed: 29180296] [CrossRef]

Allen-Tice C, Steinberger J, Murdy K, et al. Pediatric cholesterol screening practices in 9- to 11-year-olds in a large midwestern primary care setting. J. 2020;14(2):224–30. PMID: 32111582. 10.1016/j.jacl.2020.01.013 [PubMed: 32111582] [CrossRef]

Herrington L, Susi A, Gorman G, et al. Factors Affecting Pediatric Dyslipidemia Screening and Treatment. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 2019;58(5):502–10. PMID: 30793626. 10.1177/0009922819832068 [PubMed: 30793626] [CrossRef]

Sriram S, St Sauver JL, Jacobson DJ, et al. Temporal trends in lipid testing among children and adolescents: A population based study. Prev Med Rep. 2017;8:267–72. PMID: 29204335. 10.1016/j.pmedr.2017.11.001 [PMC free article: PMC5705799] [PubMed: 29204335] [CrossRef]

Margolis KL, Greenspan LC, Trower NK, et al. Lipid screening in children and adolescents in community practice: 2007 to 2010. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2014;7(5):718–26. PMID: 25160839. 10.1161/CIRCOUTCOMES.114.000842 [PMC free article: PMC4167939] [PubMed: 25160839] [CrossRef]

de Ferranti SD, Shrader P, Linton MF, et al. Children with Heterozygous Familial Hypercholesterolemia in the United States: Data from the Cascade Screening for Awareness and Detection-FH Registry. Journal of Pediatrics. 2021;229:70–7. PMID: 32976895. 10.1016/j.jpeds.2020.09.042 [PubMed: 32976895] [CrossRef]

U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for Lipid Disorders in Children and Adolescents: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. https://www​.uspreventiveservicestaskforce​.org/uspstf/recommendation​/lipid-disorders-in-children-screening-2007. Accessed: Jan 22, 2021.

U. S. Preventive Services Task Force, Grossman DC, Bibbins-Domingo K, et al. Screening for Obesity in Children and Adolescents: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2017;317(23):2417–26. PMID: 28632874. 10.1001/jama.2017.6803 [PubMed: 28632874] [CrossRef]

Krist AH, Davidson KW, Mangione CM, et al. Screening for High Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2020;324(18):1878–83. PMID: 33170248. 10.1001/jama.2020.20122 [PubMed: 33170248] [CrossRef]

US Preventive Services Task Force. US Preventive Services Task Force. Statin Use for the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease in Adults: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2022;328(8):746–53. PMID: 35997723. 10.1001/jama.2022.13044 [PubMed: 35997723] [CrossRef]

Chou R, Dana T, Blazina I, et al. Screening for Dyslipidemia in Younger Adults: A Systematic Review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 2016;165(8):560–4. PMID: 27538032. 10.7326/M16-0946 [PubMed: 27538032] [CrossRef]

Liu J, Ma J, Orekoya O, et al. Trends in Metabolic Syndrome Among US Youth, From 1999 to 2018. JAMA Pediatr. 2022;176(10):1043–45. PMID: 35816325. 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2022.1850 [PMC free article: PMC9274445] [PubMed: 35816325] [CrossRef]

United Nations Development Programme. Human Development Report 2020. The next fronteir: Human development and the Antropocene. New York, NY: United Nations Development Programme; 2020.

Lee C, Rivera-Valerio M, Bangash H, et al. New Case Detection by Cascade Testing in Familial Hypercholesterolemia: A Systematic Review of the Literature. Circ Genom Precis Med. 2019;12(11):e002723. PMID: 31638829. 10.1161/circgen.119.002723 [PMC free article: PMC9875692] [PubMed: 31638829] [CrossRef]

Reeves B, Deeks J, Higgins J, et al. Chapter 24: Including non-randomized studies on intervention effects. In: Higgins JPT, Thomas J, Chandler J, Cumpston M, Li T, Page MJ, Welch VA (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions version 6.3 (updated February 2022). https://training​.cochrane​.org/handbook/current/chapter-24. Accessed.

U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Procedure Manual. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US); 2021.

Sterne JA, Hernan MA, Reeves BC, et al. ROBINS-I: a tool for assessing risk of bias in non-randomised studies of interventions. Bmj. 2016;355:i4919. PMID: 27733354. 10.1136/bmj.i4919 [PMC free article: PMC5062054] [PubMed: 27733354] [CrossRef]

Knapp G, Hartung J. Improved tests for a random effects meta-regression with a single covariate. Stat Med. 2003;22(17):2693–710. PMID: 12939780. 10.1002/sim.1482 [PubMed: 12939780] [CrossRef]

Veroniki AA, Jackson D, Bender R, et al. Methods to calculate uncertainty in the estimated overall effect size from a random-effects meta-analysis. Res Synth Methods. 2019;10(1):23–43. PMID: 30129707. 10.1002/jrsm.1319 [PubMed: 30129707] [CrossRef]

Terrin N, Schmid CH, Lau J. In an empirical evaluation of the funnel plot, researchers could not visually identify publication bias. J Clin Epidemiol. 2005/08/09 ed2005. p. 894–901. PMID: 16085192. 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2005.01.006 [PubMed: 16085192] [CrossRef]

Sterne JA, Sutton AJ, Ioannidis JP, et al. Recommendations for examining and interpreting funnel plot asymmetry in meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials. Bmj. 2011;343:d4002. PMID: 21784880. 10.1136/bmj.d4002 [PubMed: 21784880] [CrossRef]

Berkman ND, Lohr KN, Ansari MT, et al. Grading the strength of a body of evidence when assessing health care interventions: an EPC update. J Clin Epidemiol. 2015;68(11):1312–24. PMID: 25721570. 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2014.11.023 [PubMed: 25721570] [CrossRef]

Atkins D, Best D, Briss PA, et al. Grading quality of evidence and strength of recommendations. Bmj. 2004;328(7454):1490. PMID: 15205295. 10.1136/bmj.328.7454.1490 [PMC free article: PMC428525] [PubMed: 15205295] [CrossRef]

Jackson CL, Keeton JZ, Eason SJ, et al. Identifying Familial Hypercholesterolemia Using a Blood Donor Screening Program With More Than 1 Million Volunteer Donors. JAMA Cardiol. 2019;4(7):685–9. PMID: 31116347. 10.1001/jamacardio.2019.1518 [PMC free article: PMC6537793] [PubMed: 31116347] [CrossRef]

Elliott E, Lilly C, Murphy E, et al. The Coronary Artery Risk Detection in Appalachian Communities (CARDIAC) Project: An 18 Year Review. Curr Pediatr Rev. 2017;13(4):265–76. PMID: 29345596. 10.2174/1573400514666180117093652 [PMC free article: PMC5944838] [PubMed: 29345596] [CrossRef]

Bauer KW, Marcus MD, El ghormli L, et al. Cardio-metabolic risk screening among adolescents: understanding the utility of body mass index, waist circumference and waist to height ratio. Pediatr Obes. 2015;10(5):329–37. PMID: 25515620. 10.1111/ijpo.267 [PMC free article: PMC4470887] [PubMed: 25515620] [CrossRef]

CARDIAC project. Summary of Results from 1998 to Present: Coronary Artery Risk Detection in Appalachian Communities 21 Year Summary - Fifth Grade 1998-2020. 2020. Accessed 6/20/2022 from https://www​.cardiacwv.org/?pid=10

Nelson TL, Puccetti N, Luckasen GJ. Healthy hearts: a cross-sectional study of clinical cardiovascular disease risk factors in Northern Colorado school children (1992-2013). BMC Obes. 2015;2:48. PMID: 26664730. 10.1186/s40608-015-0078-9 [PMC free article: PMC4673727] [PubMed: 26664730] [CrossRef]

Nguyen D, Kit B, Carroll M. Abnormal Cholesterol Among Children and Adolescents in the United States, 2011-2014. NCHS data brief. 2015(228):1–8. PMID: 26727279. [PubMed: 26727279]

Reina SA, Llabre MM, Vidot DC, et al. Metabolic Syndrome in Hispanic Youth: Results from the Hispanic Community Children’s Health Study/Study of Latino Youth. Metab. 2017;15(8):400–6. PMID: 28829223. 10.1089/met.2017.0054 [PMC free article: PMC5649400] [PubMed: 28829223] [CrossRef]

Braamskamp MJ, Stefanutti C, Langslet G, et al. Efficacy and Safety of Pitavastatin in Children and Adolescents at High Future Cardiovascular Risk. J Pediatr. 2015;167(2):338–43 e5. PMID: 26059337. 10.1016/j.jpeds.2015.05.006 [PubMed: 26059337] [CrossRef]

Knipscheer HC, Boelen CC, Kastelein JJ, et al. Short-term efficacy and safety of pravastatin in 72 children with familial hypercholesterolemia. Pediatr Res. 1996;39(5):867–71. PMID: 8726243. 10.1203/00006450-199605000-00021 [PubMed: 8726243] [CrossRef]

Stein EA, Illingworth DR, Kwiterovich PO, Jr., et al. Efficacy and safety of lovastatin in adolescent males with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 1999;281(2):137–44. PMID: 9917116. 10.1001/jama.281.2.137 [PubMed: 9917116] [CrossRef]

McCrindle BW, Ose L, Marais AD. Efficacy and safety of atorvastatin in children and adolescents with familial hypercholesterolemia or severe hyperlipidemia: a multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. J Pediatr. 2003;143(1):74–80. PMID: 12915827. 10.1016/S0022-3476(03)00186-0 [PubMed: 12915827] [CrossRef]

Avis HJ, Hutten BA, Gagné C, et al. Efficacy and safety of rosuvastatin therapy for children with familial hypercholesterolemia. J Am Coll Cardiol2010. p. 1121–6. PMID: 20223367. 10.1016/j.jacc.2009.10.042 [PubMed: 20223367] [CrossRef]

Couture P, Brun LD, Szots F, et al. Association of specific LDL receptor gene mutations with differential plasma lipoprotein response to simvastatin in young French Canadians with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1998;18(6):1007–12. PMID: 9633944. 10.1161/01.atv.18.6.1007 [PubMed: 9633944] [CrossRef]

de Jongh S, Ose L, Szamosi T, et al. Efficacy and safety of statin therapy in children with familial hypercholesterolemia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial with simvastatin. Circulation. 2002;106(17):2231–7. PMID: 12390953. 10.1161/01.cir.0000035247.42888.82 [PubMed: 12390953] [CrossRef]

de Jongh S, Lilien MR, op’t Roodt J, et al. Early statin therapy restores endothelial function in children with familial hypercholesterolemia. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;40(12):2117–21. PMID: 12505222. 10.1016/s0735-1097(02)02593-7 [PubMed: 12505222] [CrossRef]

Wiegman A, Hutten BA, de Groot E, et al. Efficacy and safety of statin therapy in children with familial hypercholesterolemia: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;292(3):331–7. PMID: 15265847. 10.1001/jama.292.3.331 [PubMed: 15265847] [CrossRef]

Clauss SB, Holmes KW, Hopkins P, et al. Efficacy and safety of lovastatin therapy in adolescent girls with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. Pediatrics. 2005;116(3):682–8. PMID: 16140708. 10.1542/peds.2004-2090 [PubMed: 16140708] [CrossRef]

Stein EA, Marais AD, Szamosi T, et al. Colesevelam hydrochloride: efficacy and safety in pediatric subjects with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. J Pediatr. 2010;156(2):231–6. PMID: 19879596. 10.1016/j.jpeds.2009.08.037 [PubMed: 19879596] [CrossRef]

Tonstad S, Knudtzon J, Sivertsen M, et al. Efficacy and safety of cholestyramine therapy in peripubertal and prepubertal children with familial hypercholesterolemia. J Pediatr. 1996;129(1):42–9. PMID: 8757561. 10.1016/s0022-3476(96)70188-9 [PubMed: 8757561] [CrossRef]

Tonstad S, Sivertsen M, Aksnes L, et al. Low dose colestipol in adolescents with familial hypercholesterolaemia. Arch Dis Child. 1996;74(2):157–60. PMID: 8660081. 10.1136/adc.74.2.157 [PMC free article: PMC1511517] [PubMed: 8660081] [CrossRef]

Kusters DM, Caceres M, Coll M, et al. Efficacy and safety of ezetimibe monotherapy in children with heterozygous familial or nonfamilial hypercholesterolemia. J Pediatr. 2015;166(6):1377–84. PMID: 25841542. 10.1016/j.jpeds.2015.02.043 [PubMed: 25841542] [CrossRef]

Wheeler KA, West RJ, Lloyd JK, et al. Double blind trial of bezafibrate in familial hypercholesterolaemia. Arch Dis Child. 1985;60(1):34–7. PMID: 3882058. 10.1136/adc.60.1.34 [PMC free article: PMC1777065] [PubMed: 3882058] [CrossRef]

Santos RD, Ruzza A, Hovingh GK, et al. Evolocumab in Pediatric Heterozygous Familial Hypercholesterolemia. New England Journal of Medicine. 2020;383(14):1317–27. PMID: 32865373. 10.1056/NEJMoa2019910 [PubMed: 32865373] [CrossRef]

van der Graaf A, Cuffie-Jackson C, Vissers MN, et al. Efficacy and safety of coadministration of ezetimibe and simvastatin in adolescents with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;52(17):1421–9. PMID: 18940534. 10.1016/j.jacc.2008.09.002 [PubMed: 18940534] [CrossRef]

Kinnear FJ, Lithander FE, Searle A, et al. Reducing cardiovascular disease risk among families with familial hypercholesterolaemia by improving diet and physical activity: a randomised controlled feasibility trial. BMJ Open. 2020;10(12):e044200. PMID: 33372081. 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-044200 [PMC free article: PMC7772289] [PubMed: 33372081] [CrossRef]

de Jongh S, Vissers MN, Rol P, et al. Plant sterols lower LDL cholesterol without improving endothelial function in prepubertal children with familial hypercholesterolaemia. J Inherit Metab Dis. 2003;26(4):343–51. PMID: 12971422. 10.1023/a:1025155002348 [PubMed: 12971422] [CrossRef]

Gylling H, Siimes MA, Miettinen TA. Sitostanol ester margarine in dietary treatment of children with familial hypercholesterolemia. J Lipid Res. 1995;36(8):1807–12. PMID: 7595101. 10.1016/S0022-2275(20)41499-3 [PubMed: 7595101] [CrossRef]

Amundsen AL, Ose L, Nenseter MS, et al. Plant sterol ester-enriched spread lowers plasma total and LDL cholesterol in children with familial hypercholesterolemia. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;76(2):338–44. PMID: 12145004. 10.1093/ajcn/76.2.338 [PubMed: 12145004] [CrossRef]

Engler MM, Engler MB, Malloy MJ, et al. Effect of docosahexaenoic acid on lipoprotein subclasses in hyperlipidemic children (the EARLY study). Am J Cardiol. 2005;95(7):869–71. PMID: 15781019. 10.1016/j.amjcard.2004.12.014 [PubMed: 15781019] [CrossRef]

Shannon BM, Tershakovec AM, Martel JK, et al. Reduction of elevated LDL-cholesterol levels of 4- to 10-year-old children through home-based dietary education. Pediatrics. 1994;94(6 Pt 1):923–7. PMID: 7971012. [PubMed: 7971012]

The Writing Group for the DISC Collaborative Research Group. Efficacy and safety of lowering dietary intake of fat and cholesterol in children with elevated low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. The Dietary Intervention Study in Children (DISC). JAMA. 1995;273(18):1429–35. PMID: 7723156. 10.1001/jama.1995.03520420045036 [PubMed: 7723156] [CrossRef]

Wong H, Chahal N, Manlhiot C, et al. Flaxseed in pediatric hyperlipidemia: a placebo-controlled, blinded, randomized clinical trial of dietary flaxseed supplementation for children and adolescents with hypercholesterolemia. JAMA Pediatr. 2013;167(8):708–13. PMID: 23733031. 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.1442 [PubMed: 23733031] [CrossRef]

Gidding SS, Prospero C, Hossain J, et al. A double-blind randomized trial of fish oil to lower triglycerides and improve cardiometabolic risk in adolescents. J Pediatr. 2014;165(3):497–503.e2. PMID: 25008950. 10.1016/j.jpeds.2014.05.039 [PMC free article: PMC5646219] [PubMed: 25008950] [CrossRef]

Guardamagna O, Abello F, Cagliero P, et al. Could dyslipidemic children benefit from glucomannan intake? Nutrition. 2013;29(7–8):1060–5. PMID: 23759268. 10.1016/j.nut.2013.02.010 [PubMed: 23759268] [CrossRef]

Del Bo C, Deon V, Abello F, et al. Eight-week hempseed oil intervention improves the fatty acid composition of erythrocyte phospholipids and the omega-3 index, but does not affect the lipid profile in children and adolescents with primary hyperlipidemia. Food res. 2019;119:469–76. PMID: 30884679. 10.1016/j.foodres.2018.12.045 [PubMed: 30884679] [CrossRef]

Deon V, Del Bo C, Guaraldi F, et al. Effect of hazelnut on serum lipid profile and fatty acid composition of erythrocyte phospholipids in children and adolescents with primary hyperlipidemia: A randomized controlled trial. Clin Nutr. 2018;37(4):1193–201. PMID: 28606702. 10.1016/j.clnu.2017.05.022 [PubMed: 28606702] [CrossRef]

Dennison BA, Levine DM. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, two-period crossover clinical trial of psyllium fiber in children with hypercholesterolemia. J Pediatr. 1993;123(1):24–9. PMID: 8391569. 10.1016/s0022-3476(05)81532-x [PubMed: 8391569] [CrossRef]

Guardamagna O, Amaretti A, Puddu PE, et al. Bifidobacteria supplementation: effects on plasma lipid profiles in dyslipidemic children. Nutrition. 2014;30(7–8):831–6. PMID: 24985000. 10.1016/j.nut.2014.01.014 [PubMed: 24985000] [CrossRef]

Martino F, Martino E, Morrone F, et al. Effect of dietary supplementation with glucomannan on plasma total cholesterol and low density lipoprotein cholesterol in hypercholesterolemic children. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2005;15(3):174–80. PMID: 15955465. 10.1016/j.numecd.2004.04.004 [PubMed: 15955465] [CrossRef]

Verduci E, Agostoni C, Radaelli G, et al. Blood lipids profile in hyperlipidemic children undergoing different dietary long chain polyunsaturated supplementations: a preliminary clinical trial. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2014;65(3):375–9. PMID: 24228803. 10.3109/09637486.2013.858239 [PubMed: 24228803] [CrossRef]

Kusters DM, Avis HJ, de Groot E, et al. Ten-year follow-up after initiation of statin therapy in children with familial hypercholesterolemia. JAMA. 2014;312(10):1055–7. PMID: 25203086. 10.1001/jama.2014.8892 [PubMed: 25203086] [CrossRef]

Desai NK, Mendelson MM, Baker A, et al. Hepatotoxicity of Statins as Determined by Serum Alanine Aminotransferase in a Pediatric Cohort With Dyslipidemia. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology & Nutrition. 2019;68(2):175–81. PMID: 30334928. 10.1097/MPG.0000000000002174 [PMC free article: PMC6344263] [PubMed: 30334928] [CrossRef]

Joyce NR, Zachariah JP, Eaton CB, et al. Statin Use and the Risk of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Children and Adolescents. Acad Pediatr. 2017;17(5):515–22. PMID: 28232259. 10.1016/j.acap.2017.02.006 [PMC free article: PMC5499509] [PubMed: 28232259] [CrossRef]

Vuorio A, Kuoppala J, Kovanen PT, et al. Statins for children with familial hypercholesterolemia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019;11(11):07. PMID: 31696945. 10.1002/14651858.CD006401.pub5 [PMC free article: PMC6836374] [PubMed: 31696945] [CrossRef]

Karapostolakis G, Vakaki M, Attilakos A, et al. The Effect of Long-Term Atorvastatin Therapy on Carotid Intima-Media Thickness of Children With Dyslipidemia. Angiology. 2021;72(4):322–31. PMID: 33242982. 10.1177/0003319720975635 [PubMed: 33242982] [CrossRef]

Mamann N, Lemale J, Karsenty A, et al. Intermediate-Term Efficacy and Tolerance of Statins in Children. Journal of Pediatrics. 2019;210:161–5. PMID: 31053349. 10.1016/j.jpeds.2019.03.032 [PubMed: 31053349] [CrossRef]

Langslet G, Breazna A, Drogari E. A 3-year study of atorvastatin in children and adolescents with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. J Clin Lipidol. 2016;10(5):1153–62 e3. PMID: 27678432. 10.1016/j.jacl.2016.05.010 [PubMed: 27678432] [CrossRef]

Carreau V, Girardet JP, Bruckert E. Long-term follow-up of statin treatment in a cohort of children with familial hypercholesterolemia: efficacy and tolerability. Paediatr Drugs. 2011;13(4):267–75. PMID: 21692550. 10.2165/11591650-000000000-00000 [PubMed: 21692550] [CrossRef]

Kavey RW, Manlhiot C, Runeckles K, et al. Effectiveness and Safety of Statin Therapy in Children: A Real-World Clinical Practice Experience. CJC Open. 2020;2(6):473–82. PMID: 33305206. 10.1016/j.cjco.2020.06.002 [PMC free article: PMC7710927] [PubMed: 33305206] [CrossRef]

Benekos T, Kosmeri C, Vlahos A, et al. Nine-year overview of dyslipidemia management in children with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia: a university hospital outpatient lipid clinic project in Northwestern Greece. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2020;33(4):533–8. PMID: 32084003. 10.1515/jpem-2019-0250 [PubMed: 32084003] [CrossRef]

Humphries SE, Cooper J, Dale P, et al. The UK Paediatric Familial Hypercholesterolaemia Register: Statin-related safety and 1-year growth data. J. 2018;12(1):25–32. PMID: 29208363. 10.1016/j.jacl.2017.11.005 [PMC free article: PMC5821682] [PubMed: 29208363] [CrossRef]

Zachariah JP, Chan J, Mendelson MM, et al. Adolescent Dyslipidemia and Standardized Lifestyle Modification: Benchmarking Real-World Practice. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2016;69(19):2122–3. PMID: 27810053. 10.1016/j.jacc.2016.08.041 [PMC free article: PMC5206753] [PubMed: 27810053] [CrossRef]

Luirink IK, Wiegman A, Kusters DM, et al. 20-Year Follow-up of Statins in Children with Familial Hypercholesterolemia. N Engl J Med. 2019;381(16):1547–56. PMID: 31618540. 10.1056/NEJMoa1816454 [PubMed: 31618540] [CrossRef]

Benuck I. Point: The rationale for universal lipid screening and treatment in children. J. 2015;9(5 Suppl):S93–S100. PMID: 26343217. 10.1016/j.jacl.2015.03.104 [PubMed: 26343217] [CrossRef]

Radaelli G, Sausen G, Cesa CC, et al. Secondary Dyslipidemia In Obese Children - Is There Evidence For Pharmacological Treatment? Arq Bras Cardiol. 2018;111(3):356–61. PMID: 30156604. 10.5935/abc.20180155 [PMC free article: PMC6173338] [PubMed: 30156604] [CrossRef]

Ference BA, Yoo W, Alesh I, et al. Effect of long-term exposure to lower low-density lipoprotein cholesterol beginning early in life on the risk of coronary heart disease: a Mendelian randomization analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;60(25):2631–9. PMID: 23083789. 10.1016/j.jacc.2012.09.017 [PubMed: 23083789] [CrossRef]

Clarke WR, Schrott HG, Leaverton PE, et al. Tracking of blood lipids and blood pressures in school age children: the Muscatine study. Circulation. 1978;58(4):626–34. PMID: 688572. 10.1161/01.cir.58.4.626 [PubMed: 688572] [CrossRef]

Zhang Y, Vittinghoff E, Pletcher MJ, et al. Associations of Blood Pressure and Cholesterol Levels During Young Adulthood With Later Cardiovascular Events. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2019;74(3):330–41. PMID: 31319915. 10.1016/j.jacc.2019.03.529 [PMC free article: PMC6764095] [PubMed: 31319915] [CrossRef]

Pool LR, Aguayo L, Brzezinski M, et al. Childhood Risk Factors and Adulthood Cardiovascular Disease: A Systematic Review. Journal of Pediatrics. 2021;232:118–26.e23. 10.1016/j.jpeds.2021.01.053 [PubMed: 33516680] [CrossRef]

Cook S, Auinger P, Huang TT. Growth curves for cardio-metabolic risk factors in children and adolescents. J Pediatr. 2009;155(3):S6 e15–26. PMID: 19732566. 10.1016/j.jpeds.2009.04.051 [PMC free article: PMC2789447] [PubMed: 19732566] [CrossRef]

Magnussen CG, Raitakari OT, Thomson R, et al. Utility of currently recommended pediatric dyslipidemia classifications in predicting dyslipidemia in adulthood: evidence from the Childhood Determinants of Adult Health (CDAH) study, Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study, and Bogalusa Heart Study. Circulation. 2008;117(1):32–42. PMID: 18071074. 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.718981 [PubMed: 18071074] [CrossRef]

Adams C, Burke V, Beilin LJ. Cholesterol tracking from childhood to adult mid-life in children from the Busselton study. Acta Paediatr. 2005;94(3):275–80. PMID: 16028644. 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2005.tb03069.x [PubMed: 16028644] [CrossRef]

Kelder SH, Osganian SK, Feldman HA, et al. Tracking of physical and physiological risk variables among ethnic subgroups from third to eighth grade: the Child and Adolescent Trial for Cardiovascular Health cohort study. Prev Med. 2002;34(3):324–33. PMID: 11902849. 10.1006/pmed.2001.0990 [PubMed: 11902849] [CrossRef]

Cholesterol Treatment Trialists C, Mihaylova B, Emberson J, et al. The effects of lowering LDL cholesterol with statin therapy in people at low risk of vascular disease: meta-analysis of individual data from 27 randomised trials. Lancet. 2012;380(9841):581–90. PMID: 22607822. 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60367-5 [PMC free article: PMC3437972] [PubMed: 22607822] [CrossRef]

Shapiro MD, Bhatt DL. “Cholesterol-Years” for ASCVD Risk Prediction and Treatment. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2020;76(13):1517–20. PMID: 32972527. 10.1016/j.jacc.2020.08.004 [PubMed: 32972527] [CrossRef]

Zhang Y, Pletcher MJ, Vittinghoff E, et al. Association Between Cumulative Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol Exposure During Young Adulthood and Middle Age and Risk of Cardiovascular Events. JAMA Cardiol. 2021. PMID: 34550307. 10.1001/jamacardio.2021.3508 [PMC free article: PMC8459309] [PubMed: 34550307] [CrossRef]

Bahls M, Lorenz MW, Dorr M, et al. Progression of conventional cardiovascular risk factors and vascular disease risk in individuals: insights from the PROG-IMT consortium. Eur J Prev Cardiolog. 2020;27(3):234–43. PMID: 31619084. 10.1177/2047487319877078 [PMC free article: PMC7008553] [PubMed: 31619084] [CrossRef]

Juonala M, Wu F, Sinaiko A, et al. Non-HDL Cholesterol Levels in Childhood and Carotid Intima-Media Thickness in Adulthood. Pediatrics. 2020;145(4). PMID: 32209701. 10.1542/peds.2019-2114 [PMC free article: PMC7111486] [PubMed: 32209701] [CrossRef]

Lorenz MW, Markus HS, Bots ML, et al. Prediction of clinical cardiovascular events with carotid intima-media thickness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Circulation. 2007;115(4):459–67. PMID: 17242284. 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.628875 [PubMed: 17242284] [CrossRef]

Lorenz MW, Polak JF, Kavousi M, et al. Carotid intima-media thickness progression to predict cardiovascular events in the general population (the PROG-IMT collaborative project): a meta-analysis of individual participant data. Lancet. 2012;379(9831):2053–62. PMID: 22541275. 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60441-3 [PMC free article: PMC3918517] [PubMed: 22541275] [CrossRef]

Willeit P, Tschiderer L, Allara E, et al. Carotid Intima-Media Thickness Progression as Surrogate Marker for Cardiovascular Risk: Meta-Analysis of 119 Clinical Trials Involving 100 667 Patients. Circulation. 2020;142(7):621–42. PMID: 32546049. 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.046361 [PMC free article: PMC7115957] [PubMed: 32546049] [CrossRef]

Azcui Aparicio RE, Ball J, Yiallourou S, et al. Imaging-guided evaluation of subclinical atherosclerosis to enhance cardiovascular risk prediction in asymptomatic low-to-intermediate risk individuals: A systematic review. Prev Med. 2021;153:106819. PMID: 34599926. 10.1016/j.ypmed.2021.106819 [PubMed: 34599926] [CrossRef]

Narverud I, Retterstol K, Iversen PO, et al. Markers of atherosclerotic development in children with familial hypercholesterolemia: a literature review. Atherosclerosis. 2014;235(2):299–309. PMID: 24908240. 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2014.05.917 [PubMed: 24908240] [CrossRef]

Braamskamp MJ, Hutten BA, Wiegman A. Early initiation of statin treatment in children with familial hypercholesterolaemia. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2015;26(3):236–9. PMID: 25943840. 10.1097/MOL.0000000000000177 [PubMed: 25943840] [CrossRef]

Pyles LA, Lilly CL, Joseph A, et al. Cardiometabolic risk factors in siblings from a statewide screening program. J. 2020;14(6):762–71. PMID: 33067145. 10.1016/j.jacl.2020.09.003 [PMC free article: PMC8022291] [PubMed: 33067145] [CrossRef]

Wald DS, Bestwick JP, Morris JK, et al. Child-Parent Familial Hypercholesterolemia Screening in Primary Care. New England Journal of Medicine. 2016;375(17):1628–37. PMID: 27783906. 10.1056/NEJMoa1602777 [PubMed: 27783906] [CrossRef]

Wald DS, Bestwick JP. Reaching detection targets in familial hypercholesterolaemia: Comparison of identification strategies. Atherosclerosis. 2020;293:57–61. PMID: 31837509. 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2019.11.028 [PubMed: 31837509] [CrossRef]

Wald DS, Wald NJ. Integration of child-parent screening and cascade testing for familial hypercholesterolaemia. J Med Screen. 2019;26(2):71–5. PMID: 30319009. 10.1177/0969141318796856 [PMC free article: PMC6484821] [PubMed: 30319009] [CrossRef]

Doshi N, Perrin EM, Lazorick S, et al. Short-term change in body mass index in overweight adolescents following cholesterol screening. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2009;163(9):812–7. PMID: 19736334. 10.1001/archpediatrics.2009.152 [PMC free article: PMC2909479] [PubMed: 19736334] [CrossRef]

Gregory EF, Miller JM, Wasserman RC, et al. Routine Cholesterol Tests and Subsequent Change in BMI Among Overweight and Obese Children. Acad Pediatr. 2019;19(7):773–9. PMID: 31152795. 10.1016/j.acap.2019.05.131 [PubMed: 31152795] [CrossRef]

Futema M, Cooper JA, Charakida M, et al. Screening for familial hypercholesterolaemia in childhood: Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). Atherosclerosis. 2017;260:47–55. PMID: 28349888. 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2017.03.007 [PMC free article: PMC5414415] [PubMed: 28349888] [CrossRef]

Austin MA, Hutter CM, Zimmern RL, et al. Genetic causes of monogenic heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia: a HuGE prevalence review. Am J Epidemiol. 2004;160(5):407–20. PMID: 15321837. 10.1093/aje/kwh236 [PubMed: 15321837] [CrossRef]

Bellows BK, Khera AV, Zhang Y, et al. Estimated Yield of Screening for Heterozygous Familial Hypercholesterolemia With and Without Genetic Testing in US Adults. J Am Heart Assoc. 2022;11(11):e025192. PMID: 35583136. 10.1161/jaha.121.025192 [PMC free article: PMC9238728] [PubMed: 35583136] [CrossRef]

Navar AM, Fine LJ, Ambrosius WT, et al. Earlier treatment in adults with high lifetime risk of cardiovascular diseases: What prevention trials are feasible and could change clinical practice? Report of a National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) Workshop. Am J Prev Cardiol. 2022;12:100430. PMID: 36439649. 10.1016/j.ajpc.2022.100430 [PMC free article: PMC9691440] [PubMed: 36439649] [CrossRef]

Marks D, Thorogood M, Neil HAW, et al. A review on the diagnosis, natural history, and treatment of familial hypercholesterolaemia. Atherosclerosis. 2003;168(1):1–14. PMID: 12732381. 10.1016/S0021-9150(02)00330-1 [PubMed: 12732381] [CrossRef]

Mach F, Baigent C, Catapano AL, et al. 2019 ESC/EAS Guidelines for the management of dyslipidaemias: lipid modification to reduce cardiovascular risk. Eur Heart J. 2020;41(1):111–88. PMID: 31504418. 10.1093/eurheartj/ehz455 [PubMed: 31504418] [CrossRef]

UK National Screening Committee. Screening for hypercholesterolaemia in children. London, UK: UK NSC; 2020.

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Familial hypercholesterolaemia: identification and management: CG71 [Last updated 10/04/2019]. https://www​.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg71. Accessed: Jan 22, 2021. [PubMed: 31944643]

Ramaswami U, Humphries SE, Priestley-Barnham L, et al. Current management of children and young people with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia - HEART UK statement of care. Atherosclerosis. 2019;290:1–8. PMID: 31536851. 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2019.09.005 [PubMed: 31536851] [CrossRef]

Brunham LR, Ruel I, Aljenedil S, et al. Canadian Cardiovascular Society Position Statement on Familial Hypercholesterolemia: Update 2018. Can J Cardiol. 2018;34(12):1553–63. PMID: 30527143. 10.1016/j.cjca.2018.09.005 [PubMed: 30527143] [CrossRef]

Hagan JF, Shaw JS, Duncan PM. Bright Futures: Guidelines for Health Supervision of Infants, Children, and Adolescents [pocket guide]. 4th ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2017.

Jellinger PS, Handelsman Y, Rosenblit PD, et al. American Association of Clinical Endoctrinologists and American College of Endocrinology Guidelines for Management of Dyslipidemia and Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease - Executive Summary. Endocr Pract. 2017;23(4):479–97. PMID: 28156151. 10.4158/EP171764.GL [PubMed: 28156151] [CrossRef]

Jellinger PS, Handelsman Y, Rosenblit PD, et al. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and American College of Endocrinology Guidelines for Management of Dyslipidemia and Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease. Endocr Pract. 2017;23(Suppl 2):1–87. PMID: 28437620. 10.4158/ep171764.appgl [PubMed: 28437620] [CrossRef]

American Academy of Family Physicians. Clinical Preventive Service Recommendation: Lipid Disorders. https://www​.aafp.org​/family-physician/patient-care​/clinical-recommendations​/all-clinical-recommendations​/lipid-disorders.html. Accessed: 3/1/2021.

Watts GF, Gidding S, Wierzbicki AS, et al. Integrated guidance on the care of familial hypercholesterolaemia from the International FH Foundation. Eur J Prev Cardiol. 2015;22(7):849–54. PMID: 24776375. 10.1177/2047487314533218 [PubMed: 24776375] [CrossRef]

Sawyer SM, Azzopardi PS, Wickremarathne D, et al. The age of adolescence. Lancet Child Adolesc Health. 2018;2(3):223–8. PMID: 30169257. 10.1016/s2352-4642(18)30022-1 [PubMed: 30169257] [CrossRef]