TRENDS IN DOG USE IN U.S. RESEARCH FACILITIES

Animals, including dogs, have been used in scientific demonstrations, teaching, and research since antiquity (Kinter and DeGeorge, 2016). Dog use increased dramatically in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, paralleling the development of increasingly sophisticated instrumentation for measuring physiological function, along with advances in analytic and organic chemistry that led to an explosion in the synthesis of small molecules requiring evaluation of their pharmacological properties¹ (Kinter and DeGeorge, 2016). These trends in molecule synthesis and animal use continued through the mid-20th century and were amplified by new considerations, including requirements for animal safety testing in order to obtain government approvals for clinical trials and marketing of regulated products and the growth and proliferation of international biomedical research stimulated by post–World War II industrial expansion. Several members of this committee recall the large number of sophisticated dog models that supported basic human and veterinary physiological research in the postwar decades, as well as dog bioassays for pharmacological and toxicological research and product discovery and development. The advent of new molecular techniques in the 1970s and 1980s likely played a role in replacing animal research models, particularly dogs. Data from U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) annual reports tracking dog use from 1973 to 2018 are illustrated in Figure 3_1. (See also Appendix B for further analysis of the USDA data.)

FIGURE 3-1

Annual dog usage in the United States from 1973 to 2018, based on data collected by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

The specific factors leading to decreased dog use since the 1970s are uncertain but could include the advancement of molecular techniques, societal pressures and preferences, and the high cost of using dogs in biomedical research. It is also the case that while there has been a notable decrease in dog use since the 1970s, dog use in the past decade has been steady at around 60,000 dogs per year.

LABORATORY DOG USE IN BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH AT THE VA

The VA provided the committee with documentation from 44 research projects involving dogs conducted by its researchers over the past 50 years. Of these projects, 30 dated from the 1960s to 2017 and 14 were active in 2018–2019 (VA, 2018a,b). Among these studies, cardiovascular/renal was the most frequently cited application (17), followed by central nervous system (15), endocrine (4), respiratory (4), gastrointestinal (3), and animal/surgical models (4). Some VA projects covered more than one research area, hence the total number of areas exceeds the number of projects. One VA study, undertaken to test a treatment for a spontaneous melanoma that occurs in both dogs and humans, used companion rather than laboratory dogs (VA, 2018b). In research performed at or funded by the VA, 99 percent of animals used in 2017 were mice or rats, while fewer than 0.05 percent were dogs (VA ORD, 2018).

In the following three sections, the committee surveys the use of dogs in 10 biomedical research areas—CVD, SCI, imaging, diabetes, narcolepsy, chronic pain and OA, experimental pharmacology and toxicology, cancer, infectious disease, and Alzheimer's disease. The purpose of this overview is to establish a context for assessing both the current need for laboratory dogs in each of these fields and the likely need for dogs in future VA biomedical research. CVD, SCI, and imaging are the current areas of laboratory dog use at the VA. Diabetes, narcolepsy, chronic pain and OA, and experimental pharmacology and toxicology are areas in which dogs were recently used (since 2016), and the remaining three fields (cancer, infectious disease, and Alzheimer's disease) were chosen based on their potential for future use (primarily in companion dogs). As stated in the introduction to this chapter, the absence of a particular field of research should not be taken as a determination regarding the necessity of dog use in that field.

NEXT STEPS FOR THE USE OF LABORATORY DOGS IN BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH RELATED TO THE VA'S MISSION

Historically and across disease type, from the understanding and treatment of diabetes to the development of cardiac pacemakers and valve replacement, it would be challenging to find an area of biomedical research that has not benefitted from the involvement of laboratory dogs. The use of dogs in biomedical research peaked in the 1970s, with more than 200,000 dogs per year being used at USDA-regulated academic and industrial institutions. Since the 1970s, however, as molecular techniques and rodents have gained prominence, some biomedical research has moved away from using laboratory dogs. The focus has shifted toward a variety of alternatives, including rodents, pigs, companion dogs, and even sheep. Today, the majority of dog use in the United States is by companies and private research organizations engaging in applied biomedical research and product development, including testing that is required by regulatory agencies.

Nevertheless, a few areas remain in which laboratory dogs offer the potential for medically important discoveries that cannot currently be obtained elsewhere. These include subsets of CVD research, most notably cardiac rhythm disorders, that depend on anatomical and physiological features that humans share with dogs but not with other laboratory species or on the implantation of devices that rely on restricted growth in addition to some of these other features. They may also include a number of the complex treatments for SCI, particularly cervical injuries resulting in quadriplegia with its many systemic and life-altering effects, that cannot be modeled effectively in other animal or non-animal systems. Even in these limited fields, however, it will be crucial to remain vigilant for non-dog and non-animal alternatives and actively work to promote the development and use of alternatives, as described in Chapter 4.

Given the committee's inability to predict future biomedical research needs, it is not inconceivable that VA research in other fields may require use of laboratory dogs due to unique aspects of their physiology or behavior.

Conclusion 3-1: The laboratory dog is scientifically necessary for only a few areas of current U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) biomedical research. Based on the request from the VA to review areas of research from 2016 onward, the committee concludes that laboratory dogs currently remain scientifically necessary in these areas of active biomedical research at the VA:

• mechanistic insights of premature ventricular contraction-induced cardiomyopathy;
• autonomic nerve activity and cardiac arrhythmias;
• cardiovascular disease requiring functional modeling of the human Purkinje system; and
• development and testing of implantable devices to stimulate respiration and cough in spinal cord injury.

Laboratory dogs are no longer the preferred model for studies of diabetes or narcolepsy, for most imaging studies, or for primary pharmacological research. Responsibility lies with the principal investigator, scientific review committee, and institutional animal care and use committee to know the literature and accurately determine whether the laboratory dog is still the best model for any particular study.

Conclusion 3-2: A potential new approach or treatment may be developed that, for biological reasons, can only be tested in dogs. As yet unknown, new, or reemerging diseases or disorders may not be reproducible in non-dog models and could require the limited use of laboratory dogs to advance their prevention, treatment, or control. Conversely, alternatives may develop in the future that would make the laboratory dog unnecessary.

Conclusion 3-3: The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) has an opportunity to expand the study of companion dogs in clinical trials. Companion dogs experience many of the same naturally occurring diseases as humans and stand to benefit from the results of the research in which they participate. Companion dogs are promising models for a range of disorders, including obesity, diabetes, infectious disease, Alzheimer's disease, osteoarthritis, hereditary glaucoma, cardiomyopathy, thoracic spinal cord injury, and cancer. While companion dog clinical trials can be challenging to conduct due, in part, to the financial and time costs of collecting an appropriate population of companion animals for a particular trial, these studies are possible and deserve priority consideration by VA researchers and leaders.

THE VA'S BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH REVIEW PROCESS

VA-funded biomedical research using laboratory dogs takes place either in VA medical centers or through partnerships with local academic centers (e.g., the St. Louis VA Medical Center no longer has an animal facility on the premises but partners with Washington University and St. Louis University to conduct animal research). VA funds support VA clinician–researchers, who initiate research projects based on the health care needs of veterans. Each laboratory dog research protocol undergoes several stages of VA review, as illustrated in Figure 3_2.

FIGURE 3-2

The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs' (VA's) intramural canine research review process. NOTE: CRADO = Chief Research and Development Officer; CVMO = Chief Veterinary Medical Officer; eRA= electronic Research Administration; IACUC = institutional animal (more...)

For VA-funded research, the investigator submits a proposal using the same technology infrastructure that is employed by NIH (Grants.gov, n.d.). The proposal is reviewed by a panel of experts who are recruited by the Office of Research and Development of the relevant VA service (primary review) and who score the proposal for scientific merit (see Figure 3_2, bottom left). Completed reviews are sent to the director of the service, who makes the final funding decision. Each facility then carries out a process of regulatory approval. This includes review by a local R&D committee and its subcommittees, which include the institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC) for animal research, the institutional review board for human research, and other committees, depending on the exact requirements of the study. For research with dogs, a secondary veterinary review is carried out by the Office of the Chief Veterinary Medical Officer. The Chief Research and Development Officer; the VA National Center for Ethics in Health Care; the Deputy Undersecretary for Discovery, Education, and Affiliate Networks; and the Undersecretary for Health also review the project before it is submitted to the Secretary of the VA for final approval before the work may begin. The secondary veterinary review was instituted in the 1970s for all VA-funded research involving animals and has been required for all proposed research involving dogs at the VA, regardless of funding source, since 2017 (VHA ORD, 2017). Only after all the regulatory requirements are met is the research permitted to begin. For canine research to be supported by non-VA sources, the same secondary review process applies, with the only difference being that the external funding source, and not the VA, is responsible for the primary review for scientific merit (Bever, 2019). Recent legislative developments related to oversight of VA biomedical research using laboratory dogs are discussed in Chapter 1 and later in this chapter.

OPERATIONALIZING “NECESSARY” AREAS OF AGREEMENT AND DISAGREEMENT WITHIN THE COMMITTEE

The committee offers the following recommendation for determining when it is scientifically necessary to use laboratory dogs in biomedical research funded by or conducted at the VA.

Recommendation 1: Adopt an expanded set of criteria for determining when it is scientifically necessary to use laboratory dogs in biomedical research funded by or conducted at the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA).

In order to conduct biomedical research that will lead to meaningful outcomes to support improved health of veterans, the VA should adopt an expanded set of criteria for determining if the use of laboratory dogs is scientifically necessary:⁴

1.

The scientific question and the knowledge anticipated will advance understanding or medical practices related to veterans' health;

2.

Based on unique physiological and other characteristics, there is no alternative to the laboratory dog that will yield scientifically valid results that meet proposed study objectives;

3.

The anticipated harms experienced by the laboratory dog are outweighed by the potential benefits for veterans; and

4.

Both the scientific review committee and institutional animal care and use committee have provided written statements attesting that the laboratory dog is the only species that can yield scientifically valid results.

After reaching agreement on Conclusion 3-1 and Recommendation 1, the committee found itself at an impasse. Ten committee members,⁵ a majority, believed that according to the Statement of Task, their job was not done and that a second recommendation linked to Recommendation 1 was warranted, while five committee members⁶ were equally convinced that this second recommendation would not be in keeping with the Statement of Task and thus should not be included in the report. The differing opinions of the two groups turn on the meaning of three specific sentences in the Statement of Task—and, in particular, on the meaning of one word that appears multiple times in those sentences.

The crucial word is “necessary,” and the portion of the Statement of Task that contains the three sentences reads as follows (with emphasis added):

Specifically, the committee will write a report to address the following:

1.

Explore recent past, current, and anticipated research questions directly related to the VA's mission to determine if dogs [rather than non-rodent (excluding non-human primates) or rodent species or non-animal alternatives] are or will continue to be necessary for relevant basic and translational research. The committee will:

a.

Make a determination as to whether dogs are or will continue to be necessary for any type of biomedical research directly related to the VA's mission. If it is determined that they are necessary, describe the unique physiological and other characteristics of dogs that currently make it the necessary animal model for use in these types of research.

In reading this portion of the Statement of Task, the majority and minority groups interpret the word “necessary” in different ways and, as a result, end up with differing opinions as to whether the report should include the recommendation in question. While there are other issues that the two groups do not agree on, the crux of their disagreement can be traced to that one word.

To understand the disagreement, some background is useful. Throughout the study process, the committee debated at great length how scientific, legal, ethical, and social considerations factor into the determination of the laboratory dog's necessity in VA biomedical research. In March 2018, prior to the VA's request that the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine undertake this study, the federal government enacted new restrictions on the VA's use of laboratory dogs, mandating that no federal funds “may be used to conduct research using canines unless: the scientific objectives of the study can only be met by research with canines.”⁷ Section 254 of the Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2018 further required the Secretary of the VA to “directly approve” any such studies, and to submit to the U.S. Congress within 180 days “a detailed report outlining under what circumstances canine research may be needed if there are no other alternatives.”⁸

In December 2019, as the committee neared the end of its deliberative process, the Further Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2020⁹ was enacted into law. This legislation reiterated the language from the 2018 Act and expanded it to include cats and non-human primates.¹⁰ The 2020 Act also added a new requirement that such scientific objectives must be “directly related to an illness or injury that is combat-related.”¹¹ Furthermore, the 2020 legislation now requires the Secretary of the VA to submit a report to the U.S. Congress for any such approved research “not later than 30 days before the commencement of such research.”¹² That report must describe the nature of the research and include “the justification for the determination of the Secretary that the scientific objectives of such research could only be met using canines, felines, or non-human primates.”¹³

In considering the Statement of Task in the context of this legislation, the members of the majority and minority disagreed about the scientific and ethical implications of this legislation and about its relevance to the committee's recommendations to the VA.

As noted, all members of the committee agreed on Recommendation 1, which addresses the Statement of Task—at least partially—by laying out a set of scientific criteria that provides the VA with a framework for deciding when it is scientifically necessary to use laboratory dogs in a proposed protocol. All of the committee members are satisfied that Recommendation 1 provides a framework for scientific grounds for determining whether the laboratory dog should be used. The issue that separates them is whether addressing the scientific grounds for using dogs in research is sufficient to satisfy the Statement of Task.

The five committee members in the minority assert that it is indeed sufficient, and they believe that the inquiry should end there. Referring to the definition of “necessary” from the Oxford English Dictionary—“required to be achieved” or “essential”—they assert that determining the use of dogs to be necessary in a line of VA research is equivalent to finding that the laboratory dog is the only animal model that can satisfy an important study objective. In short, they believe that the word “necessary” in the Statement of Task should be read as “scientifically necessary” and, in particular, that it was the VA's intention in its Statement of Task to ask only about scientific necessity. Thus, because Recommendation 1 addresses that aspect of the Statement of Task, the minority concludes that no further recommendations are necessary or warranted.

By contrast, the 10 committee members in the majority believe that the discussion of when the laboratory dog is “necessary” should not end with scientific or technical considerations related to the unique physiological and other characteristics of dogs and that parameters for guiding how and when to use laboratory dogs must include ethical, legal, and animal welfare concepts as well. In making this argument, they refer to another part of the Statement of Task, which specifically asks the committee to address other issues than the scientific ones:

1.

Identify ethical considerations, regulatory requirements, and currently accepted standards for the care, use and welfare of dogs in biomedical research, and make recommendations to enhance their well-being while achieving the research objectives.

If policy making on dog research is to be ethical, the ten members of the majority believe, a broader conceptualization of “necessary” than just “scientifically necessary” is required, and specifically they believe that if policy on dog research is to be ethical it must also take into consideration the implications for members of other species that might be substituted for dogs. In particular, the majority argues that while the Oxford English Dictionary provides a concise definition of “necessity,” that definition lacks sufficient conceptual or analytical clarity to guide action in this case. Instead they hold that the concept of “necessity” entails specifying at least two factors—the goals invoked and the conditions attached to such goals. The goal of the VA is to restore or improve the health and well-being of veterans, which is done in part by advancing scientific knowledge and the understanding of how diseases (e.g., SCI) affect veterans. Science is not the end goal, but rather science is the means of advancing the goals embedded in the mission of the VA. For research using laboratory dogs to be “necessary,” the research must not only advance a set of goals but do so under a set of conditions that include factors like time efficiency, law, and ethics. As described in Chapter 2, any policy that restricts research on dogs may transfer the burden of that research to other large animal models (e.g., pigs and sheep), and the alternative species could potentially experience greater harm than laboratory dogs, a scenario that could be considered unethical by some and a violation of the Three Rs—a set of well-established ethical principles that have also been embedded in many regulatory documents guiding the ethical use of animals in research.

The 10 committee members contend that there are no clear moral grounds for arguing that dogs have a “higher” moral status than other large animal species like pigs. Societal preferences, without additional ethical principles, do not confer greater moral value. Therefore, a rule that requires that scientists be more permissive about research on pigs than dogs or similar large animal species is not ethical. What matters most in selecting a particular species, from an ethical standpoint, is that (1) the biological characteristics of the non-human animal indicate that it will provide valuable knowledge in the context of the proposed research, and (2) the harm experienced by the animals is minimized. Some animal research protocols may be less harmful when conducted in dogs than in other species like pigs. Others might be the reverse. The majority of the committee believes these ethical considerations regarding minimizing the harm experienced by animals are part of evaluating scientific necessity.

In support of this contention the majority point to the 2011 Institute of Medicine report on chimpanzees, where the committee found itself in a similar position and took a very similar step. In particular, that committee wrote:

Neither the cost of using chimpanzees in research nor the ethical implications of that use were specifically in the committee's charge. Rather, the committee was asked for its advice on the scientific necessity of the chimpanzee model for biomedical and behavioral research. The committee agrees that cost should not be a consideration. However, the committee feels strongly that any assessment of the necessity for using chimpanzees as an animal model in research raises ethical issues, and any analysis of necessity must take these ethical issues into account. (IOM, 2011, p. 2)

The committee majority also point to similar ethical considerations being described in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (the Guide) (NRC, 2011), which is an internationally accepted primary reference on animal care and use whose use is required in the United States by the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS) Policy. Many institutions, including the VA, are legally obligated to follow PHS Policy and therefore the recommendations in the Guide.

In light of such ethical considerations, the majority believes that where multiple species, including the laboratory dog, can be adequately used to answer the scientific question, the species that will incur the fewest burdens should be selected and that such considerations must play a role in determining when a proposed protocol is “necessary.”

The committee majority recognizes that this ethical consideration may at times be in conflict with the current law. Specifically, if the dog is the non-primate laboratory species that would incur the fewest burdens in a proposed protocol, ethical considerations would require its use, but that would be prohibited by law. In this case—or in any situation where the animal that would incur the fewest burdens cannot be selected, because of legal or funding restrictions or any other reason—the majority believes that the VA cannot ethically proceed and should consider forgoing the research. In some situations, this limitation might encourage researchers to find an alternative method or combination of methods that would accomplish the goals of the study and reduce harms to an acceptable level. It may require that the research be done by a different entity. It is also possible that if the current legal restrictions on the VA's dog research program are deemed to be hampering the advancement of science, research, and treatments for veterans, lawmakers will choose to remove or alter the current legal restrictions.

With this rationale the 10 committee members in the majority offer the following recommendation:

Recommendation 2: Adopt an expanded set of criteria for determining when to use laboratory dogs in U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs' (VA's) biomedical research when the dog is not scientifically necessary.^14,15

In order to conduct biomedical research that will lead to meaningful outcomes to support improved health of veterans, the following criteria should be met before approving the use of laboratory dogs when other animal models are also scientifically appropriate:

1.

The scientific question and the knowledge expected to be gained will advance understanding or medical practices related to veterans' health;

2.

The research objective cannot be adequately addressed using new approach methodologies or ethically using human subjects or companion animals;

3.

Where multiple species [excluding non-human primates],¹⁶ including the laboratory dog, can be used to adequately answer the scientific question, the non-primate species that will incur the fewest burdens should be selected. If the species that will incur the fewest burdens cannot be selected for any reason, including legal and/or funding restrictions (e.g., the laboratory dog), the VA cannot ethically proceed and should consider forgoing the research; and

4.

The expected harms experienced by the selected animals are sufficiently outweighed by the expected benefits for veterans. Both the institutional animal care and use committee and the VA's central office ethics review should concur in this assessment.

The five member committee minority dissents from this recommendation because they believe the recommendation strays beyond the Statement of Task. Where the majority grounds its arguments for the recommendations in ethical considerations, the minority points to the ethical, legal, regulatory, and institutional context in which the Statement of Task was prepared and argues that the VA clearly intended the committee to address only the scientific necessity of using dogs in research and that ethics-based recommendations are outside the scope of what the committee was asked to do.

To support its position, the minority offers several observations. First, turning to the Statement of Task, the minority points to the sentence “If it is determined that they [dogs] are necessary, describe the unique physiological and other characteristics of dogs that currently make it the necessary animal model for use in these types of research.” The implicit message in this sentence, the minority argue, is that the VA wanted the committee to focus on objective scientific criteria, such as physiological characteristics, in the determination of whether dogs are necessary in particular research projects. A second sentence in the Statement of Task asks the committee to “Provide recommendations for any new or revised scientific parameters to guide how and when to use dogs for biomedical research rather than non-rodent (excluding non-human primates) or rodent species or non-animal alternatives.” Again, only scientific parameters, not ethical ones, are mentioned. Thus, the minority believes that the VA's intention in its Statement of Task was that the committee address only the scientific necessity of using dogs in research. The minority also believes that the ethical considersations (#2 in the Statement of Task) were specific to the dog (rather than to a comparative ethical analysis).

More broadly, the minority contends that Recommendation 2 is in conflict with both existing VA policy and existing federal legislation. For example, during the public meeting held in Washington, DC, on February 14, 2019, the VA representative confirmed that the definition of “necessary” used by the VA holds that the VA should only continue using dogs in biomedical research when there is no other alternative that will yield scientifically valid results that meet proposed study objectives of importance to veterans (i.e., the definition it uses of “necessary” is essentially “scientifically necessary”). Furthermore, the federal appropriations legislation that places restrictions on the use of dogs in VA-funded research uses the same definition of necessity. Beyond that Recommendation 2 contradicts accepted policies of various other federal agencies, such as NIH, many of which treat some animals, such as the chimpanzee, differently from others, and the Animal Welfare Act privileges any “dog, cat, monkey (nonhuman primate mammal), guinea pig, hamster, rabbit, or such other warm-blooded animal” over every other type of sentient species, including rats and mice, birds used for research, and farmed animals, such as horses, livestock, and poultry.¹⁷

Thus, the minority members believe that while it is certainly important to grapple with the broad ethical issues surrounding animal research, this report is not the proper venue, as it was intended to address scientific questions and ethical and regulatory positions taken by the VA and the federal government specific to the laboratory dog. Furthermore, the minority contends that if a full ethical analysis of using various species of animals in biomedical research were to be undertaken, it would require a deeper analysis than this committee was equipped to perform and likely would require convening a committee that was not composed predominantly of scientists. If the dissenting minority believed a comparative ethical analysis had been requested in the Statement of Task, the minority would have proposed the use of a broader ethical framework that acknowledges the rapid changes in science (e.g., the sophistication of non-animal models), is inclusive of societal values (particularly when the research is publicly funded), is ethically defensible, and is ultimately useful to researchers.¹⁸ Regardless, the minority members still conclude that such comparative ethical questions remain outside the scope of the committee's Statement of Task. For these reasons they dissent from Recommendation 2.

To sum up, the disagreement between the majority and minority over Recommendation 2 is essentially a disagreement about whether that recommendation comports with the Statement of Task. The majority, taking a broad view of the meaning of “necessary,” believes it does. The minority, holding a more restricted view of the meaning of “necessary,” believes it does not. The practical effect of that definitional disagreement is that the majority believes that the interests of other laboratory animals than the dog must be taken into consideration when determining the necessity of research on laboratory dogs, while the minority believes that the question the committee was asked dealt not with other research animals but only with laboratory dogs.

OPPORTUNITIES TO IMPROVE BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH PROTOCOLS AND REVIEW PROCESSES AT THE VA

The committee is concerned that the current culture of justifying biomedical research in laboratory dogs favors the continued use of dogs, given that the previous experience of principal investigators and technical support staff, along with the availability of extensive historical data for dogs, are sometimes the sole justifications provided for the continued use of laboratory dogs in research. The current system has considerable momentum around scientific review committee and IACUC acceptance of the principal investigator's judgment regarding whether laboratory dogs are necessary. In the experience of some committee members, in general, if an investigator states that the harm to laboratory dogs used in a particular study would be less than the harm incurred by pigs or sheep because more pigs or sheep would be required to build the knowledge base to a level comparable to dogs, it is possible that scientific review committees and IACUCs will accept that logic. Perpetuating this reasoning favors the continued use of laboratory dogs in biomedical research, at the VA and elsewhere.

The committee could not fully evaluate or understand the institutional momentum at the VA for or against this reasoning for the continued use of laboratory dogs. Rather, this concern is based on review of ACORPs and the opinion and experience of some on the committee. The VA Chief Research and Development Officer, Rachel Ramoni, told the committee that the VA was committed to moving away from sensitive species, including dogs, even if that meant an additional investment of time and money (Ramoni, 2019). Indeed, the committee learned that a pilot study in pigs was under way at a VA center to potentially replace the use of laboratory dogs. Also during the course of this study, several VA protocols planned in laboratory dogs were switched to mice, pigs, or humans.

Justifying the use of laboratory dogs at the VA today requires significant paperwork and sign-offs but, in the committee's judgment, does not always require a thorough examination of alternatives nor an accurate accounting of harm and burden to study animals. For example, evidence from the ACORPs reviewed by the committee suggests that literature searches for relevant alternatives are of poor quality and seem to be primarily box-checking exercises (i.e., the decision to use laboratory dogs having been made prior to the literature search for alternatives). Also, some ACORPs lacked a written descripton of the perceived harm to laboratory dogs. A few ACORPs also seemed to misapply the Three Rs by prioritizing reduction in the number of dogs used over refinement.

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