This volume of the IARC Monographs provides evaluations of the consumption of red meat and the consumption of processed meat.

Red meat refers to unprocessed mammalian muscle meat (e.g. beef, veal, pork, lamb) including that which may be minced or frozen. Processed meat refers to meat that has been transformed through salting, curing, fermentation, smoking or other processes to enhance flavour or improve preservation. Most processed meats contain pork or beef, but may also contain other meats including poultry and offal (e.g. liver) or meat by-products such as blood.

Red meat contains proteins of high biological value, and important micronutrients such as B vitamins, iron (both free iron and haem iron), and zinc.

Carcinogens, including heterocyclic aromatic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, can be produced by cooking of meat, with greatest amounts generated at high temperatures by pan-frying, grilling, or barbecuing. Meat processing such as curing and smoking can result in formation of carcinogenic chemicals including N-nitroso compounds and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

An IARC Monographs Working Group reviewed epidemiological evidence, animal bioassays, and mechanistic and other relevant data to reach conclusions as to the carcinogenic hazard to humans of the consumption of red meat and processed meat. The Working Group assessed more than 800 epidemiological studies that investigated the association of cancer (more than 15 types) with consumption of red meat or processed meat, including large cohorts in many countries, from several continents, with diverse ethnicities and diets.

Contents

• NOTE TO THE READER
• List of Participants
• PREAMBLE
• GENERAL REMARKS
• 1. EXPOSURE DATA
  • 1.1. Identification of the agents
  • 1.2. Meat composition
  • 1.3. Exposure via food intake
  • 1.4. Exposure assessment and biological markers
  • 1.5. Regulations and guidelines
  • References
• 2. CANCER IN HUMANS
  • 2.1. General issues regarding the epidemiology of cancer and consumption of red meat and processed meat
  • 2.2. Cancer of the colorectum
  • 2.3. Cancer of the stomach
  • 2.4. Cancer of the pancreas
  • 2.5. Cancer of the prostate
  • 2.6. Cancer of the breast
  • 2.7. Cancer of the lung
  • 2.8. Cancer of the oesophagus
  • 2.9. Other cancers
• 3. CANCER IN EXPERIMENTAL ANIMALS
  • 3.1. Mouse
  • 3.2. Rat
  • 3.3. Haem iron
  • 3.4. Overview of cancer bioassays for chemicals related to meat consumption
  • References
• 4. MECHANISTIC AND OTHER RELEVANT DATA
  • 4.1. Digestion and metabolism
  • 4.2. Mechanisms of carcinogenesis
  • 4.3. Precancerous lesions
  • 4.4. Cancer susceptibility
  • 4.5. Meat components potentially involved in carcinogenesis
  • References
• 5. SUMMARY OF DATA REPORTED
  • 5.1. Exposure data
  • 5.2. Human carcinogenicity data
  • 5.3. Animal carcinogenicity data
  • 5.4. Mechanistic and other relevant data
• 6. EVALUATION
  • 6.1. Cancer in humans
  • 6.2. Cancer in experimental animals
  • 6.3. Overall evaluation
  • 6.4. Rationale
• List of abbreviations

This publication represents the views and expert opinions of an IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, which met in Lyon, 6–13 October 2015

Lyon, France - 2018

IARC MONOGRAPHS

In 1969, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) initiated a programme on the evaluation of the carcinogenic risk of chemicals to humans involving the production of critically evaluated monographs on individual chemicals. The programme was subsequently expanded to include evaluations of carcinogenic risks associated with exposures to complex mixtures, lifestyle factors and biological and physical agents, as well as those in specific occupations. The objective of the programme is to elaborate and publish in the form of monographs critical reviews of data on carcinogenicity for agents to which humans are known to be exposed and on specific exposure situations; to evaluate these data in terms of human risk with the help of international working groups of experts in carcinogenesis and related fields; and to indicate where additional research efforts are needed. The lists of IARC evaluations are regularly updated and are available on the Internet at http://monographs.iarc.fr/.

This programme has been supported since 1982 by Cooperative Agreement U01 CA33193 with the United States National Cancer Institute, Department of Health and Human Services. Additional support has been provided since 1986 by the European Commission Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs, and Inclusion, initially by the Unit of Health, Safety and Hygiene at Work, and since 2014 by the European Union Programme for Employment and Social Innovation “EaSI” (2014–2020) (for further information please consult: http://ec.europa.eu/social/easi). Support has also been provided since 1992 by the United States National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Department of Health and Human Services. The contents of this volume are solely the responsibility of the Working Group and do not necessarily represent the official views of the United States National Cancer Institute, the United States National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, the United States Department of Health and Human Services, or the European Commission.

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