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IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Some Chemicals Present in Industrial and Consumer Products, Food and Drinking-Water. Lyon (FR): International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2013. (IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, No. 101.)

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Some Chemicals Present in Industrial and Consumer Products, Food and Drinking-Water.

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2-NITROTOLUENE

2-Nitrotoluene was considered by a previous IARC Working Group in 1995 (IARC, 1996). Since that time new data have become available, which have been incorporated in this Monograph,and taken into consideration in the present evaluation.

1. Exposure Data

1.1. Chemical and physical data

1.1.1. Nomenclature

  • Chem. Abstr. Serv. Reg. No.: 88-72-2
  • Chem. Abstr. Name: 1-Methyl-2-nitrobenzene
  • IUPAC Systematic Name: 1-methyl-2-nitrobenzene
  • Synonyms: 2-Methylnitrobenzene; 2-methyl-1-nitrobenzene; ortho-methyl-nitrobenzene; ortho-mononitrotoluene; ortho-nitrotoluene; 2-nitrotoluol; ortho-nitrotoluol
  • EINECS No.: 201-853-3

1.1.2. Structural and molecular formulae and relative molecular mass

Image Eq6c_01.jpg

Relative molecular mass: 317.14

1.1.3. Chemical and physical properties of the pure substance

  • Description: Yellowish liquid at ambient temperatures (O'Neil et al., 2006)
  • Boiling-point: 220.4 °C (O'Neil et al., 2006)
  • Melting-point: −9.3 °C (O'Neil et al., 2006)
  • Density: 1.162 at 15 °C (O'Neil et al., 2006)
  • Spectroscopy data: Infrared (prism [4692], grating [437]), ultraviolet (UV) [1292], nuclear magnetic resonance (proton [676], C-13 [857]) and mass spectral data have been reported (Sadtler Research Laboratories, 1980)
  • Solubility: Slightly soluble in water (652 mg/L at 30 °C); soluble in benzene, diethyl ether, ethanol and petroleum ether (O'Neil et al., 2006)
  • Volatility: Vapour pressure, 0.188 mm Hg at 20 °C; relative vapour density (air = 1), 4.72 (IARC, 1996; HSDB, 2004)
  • Stability: Combustible when exposed to heat or open flame; potentially reacts explosively with alkali (Sax & Lewis, 1989)
  • Octanol/water partition coefficient (P): log P, 2.30 (O'Neil et al., 2006)
  • Conversion factor: mg/m3 = 5.6 × ppm (calculated from: mg/m3 = (relative molecular mass/24.45) × ppm, assuming a temperature of 25 °C and pressure of 101 kPa.

1.1.4. Technical products and impurities

2-Nitrotoluene is available commercially at a purity of ≥ 99.5%, and containing 3-nitrotoluene (0.2%) and 4-nitrotoluene (0.01%) as typical impurities (European Commission, 2008).

1.1.5. Analysis

Levels of 2-nitrotoluene can be determined in workplace air by drawing the air sample through a solid sorbent tube containing silica gel, desorbing with methanol and analysing with gas chromatography and flame ionization detection. The range of detection for this method is 1.97–9.86 mg/m3 for a 30-L air sample (NIOSH, 1998).

2-Nitrotoluene can be measured in surface or groundwater by pre-concentration through salting-out extraction with acetonitrile and sodium chloride and analysis with high performance liquid chromatography with dual wavelength UV detection (US EPA, 2006). It can also be determined in water and wastewater by homogeneous liquid–liquid extraction or dispersive liquid–liquid micro-extraction and analysis with gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (Ebrahimzadeh et al., 2007, 2009).

1.2. Production and use

1.2.1. Production

Nitrotoluenes are produced by the nitration of toluene with an aqueous acidic mixture of sulfuric acid and nitric acid at an initial temperature of 25 °C that is slowly raised to 35–40 °C. The resulting product contains 55–60% 2-nitrotoluene, 3–4% meta-nitrotoluene and 35–40% para-nitrotoluene. The isomers can be separated by a combination of fractional distillation and crystallization (Dugal, 2005).

In 1993, the production of mononitrotoluenes in the United States of America was 26 000 tonnes, of which approximately 16 120 tonnes were the ortho isomer, 780 tonnes were the meta isomer and 9100 tonnes were the para isomer (Dugal, 2005). In 1984, the yearly production capacity for mononitrotoluenes (all isomers) in the western world was approximately 200 000 tonnes (Booth, 1991). 2-Nitrotoluene is listed as a high production volume chemical, and, according to data submitted by companies under the Inventory Update Rule, production of 2-nitrotoluene in the USA was between 10 million and 50 million pounds [4.5 million and 22.7 million tonnes] for every 4-year reporting period between 1986 and 2002 (US EPA, 2004).

2-Nitrotoluene is produced by 10 companies in the USA, five companies in the People's Republic of China, three companies in the United Kingdom, two companies each in Canada and China, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, and one company each in the Czech Republic, Germany, India, Italy, Japan and Switzerland (Chemical Sources International, 2010). Other sources indicated that 2-nitrotoluene was produced by one company in the USA (HSDB, 2004), four companies in Germany and one company each in Belgium, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom (IUCLID, 2000).

1.2.2. Use

2-Nitrotoluene is primarily used in the production of derivatives, including ortho-toluidine, 2-amino-4-chlorotoluene, 2-amino-6-chlorotoluene and ortho-toluidine-4-sulfonic acid, which are intermediates in the production of various azo dyes (IARC, 1996). It is also used in the manufacture of (or manufacture of intermediates for) other dyes, such as magenta, sulfur dyes, rubber chemicals, agricultural chemicals and explosives (HSDB, 2004).

1.3. Occurrence

1.3.1. Natural occurrence

ortho-Nitrotoluene is not known to occur as a natural product.

1.3.2. Occupational exposure

Occupational exposure to 2-nitrotoluene may occur during its production and use. The major routes of exposure are inhalation and dermal contact (European Commission, 2008). It is estimated that approximately 150 workers are potentially exposed to 2-nitrotoluene in the European Union (EU; European Commission, 2008).

According to information on manufacturing firms in the EU, 2-nitrotoluene is typically produced and used in a closed system and is usually processed within the manufacturing plants (European Commission, 2008). Exposure to 2-nitrotoluene may occur during sampling, loading and unloading tanks and drums and maintenance. Occupational monitoring data for exposure to 2-nitrotoluene are available from the major producers for the period 1996–2000. 2-Nitrotoluene was measured in personal air samplers for a full shift. For manufacturing workers, mean concentrations were 0.057 mg/m3 for distillation activities in 1991–2000 and 0.075 mg/m3 for nitration activities in 1996–99. Workers involved in the processing of 2-nitrotoluene in 1995–2000 were exposed to mean levels of 0.050–0.062 mg/m3, and those involved in filling drums or tanks in 1997–99 were exposed to mean levels of 0.030–0.052 mg/m3. Mean short-term occupational exposure measurements ranged from 0.109 to 0.250 mg/m3 for processing activities. Levels of occupational exposure to 2-nitrotoluene ranged from 0.01 to 0.0545 mg/m3 (19 samples) at a company where it was used to produce dinitrotoluenes. The EU noted that detailed information on work activities, sampling and analytical methods were not reported, but estimated that the highest value for a shift (0.280 mg/m3) could be regarded as a reasonable worst-case exposure level. Based on these data and information on sampling and maintenance activities (Table 1.1), inhalation exposure (8-hour time-weighted average) was estimated to range from 0.35 to 0.7 mg/m3 for all activities. Dermal exposure was estimated at 420 mg per day; the highest exposures were deemed to occur during maintenance activities (Table 1.1).

Table 1.1. Estimated occupational exposure to 2-nitrotoluene.

Table 1.1

Estimated occupational exposure to 2-nitrotoluene.

2-Nitrotoluene was detected in the ambient air of a chemical manufacturing plant in New Jersey (USA) at a concentration of 47 ng/m3, and at concentrations up to 2 mg/m3 in the nitrotoluene production area of a chemical plant that produced pharmaceuticals and explosives (IARC, 1996). Annual average predicted levels in the air obtained from data on emissions reported by industry at three sites in Italy were below 0.01 mg/m3 (European Commission, 2008). The mean 8-hour time-weighted average at a Chinese plant that manufactured di- and trinitrotoluenes was 0.75 mg/m3 (range, undetected–4.29 mg/m3) (Jones et al., 2005a). [The Working Group noted the lack of data on worldwide occupational exposure.]

1.3.3. Environmental occurrence

(a) Releases

2-Nitrotoluene can be released into the environment (primarily into air and water) during its manufacture and use. It may also be formed from the degradation of di- or trinitrotoluenes and can be released into the environment from di- or trinitrotoluenes-manufacturing plants or industries that use these chemicals, such as munitions-production facilities.

Data on releases into the air and water from 2-nitrotoluene production and processing were obtained from three industrial sites by the European Union, and were used to estimate regional and continental releases (Table 1.2). Releases into the air at the three sites ranged from 0.07 to 1.64 kg per day, and those into water ranged from 0.015 to 1.08 kg per day. The data submitted by industry showed that no sewage sludge from industrial sewage treatment plants was spread at two sites, and that the sludge was sent off-site for composting before being spread at the third site. Modelling using worst-case values predicted emissions to the soil of 1.35 kg per day at the regional scale and 1.05 kg per day at the continental scale.

Table 1.2. Estimates of releases of 2-nitrotoluene from production and processing.

Table 1.2

Estimates of releases of 2-nitrotoluene from production and processing.

(b) Ambient air

HSDB (2004) and the European Commission (2008) reviewed information and calculated parameters related to the environmental fate of nitrotoluene in ambient air, water and soil. 2-Nitrotoluene released into the air is expected to exist entirely in the vapour phase and is degraded in the atmosphere by a reaction with photochemically produced hydroxyl radicals, with an estimated atmospheric half-life of 23 days (European Commission, 2008) or 42 days (HSDB, 2004). It may also be degraded by photolysis; the major products formed are 2-methyl-6-nitrophenol and 2-methyl-4-nitrophenol (European Commission, 2008).

Limited environmental monitoring data are available. 2-Nitrotoluene was detected in the ambient air in Japan at a concentration of 44 μg/m3 (European Commission, 2008). In the USA, it was detected at 0.03 and 0.9 ng/m3 in two ambient air samples collected in Boise, ID, in the winter of 1986–87 and at 0.047 μg/m3 in ambient air at a manufacturing plant in New Jersey (Pellizzari, 1978; NTP, 2008). [The Working Group noted the large differences in concentration data, which reflect the nature and location of the sampling.]

(c) Water

2-Nitrotoluene released into water is not expected to adsorb (or only slightly) to suspended solids and sediment. Because 2-nitrotoluene absorbs UV light strongly, it is susceptible to photochemical degradation. Volatilization is expected to play a minor role in its environmental fate in water and sediments. Chemical hydrolysis is not expected to be important in the removal of 2-nitrotoluene from aquatic environments, and its bioaccumulation is low. It may be removed from aquatic environments by biodegradation, but not under conditions in which acclimation of the same population of bacteria or other microorganisms is unlikely to occur, such as surface or running waters (HSDB, 2004).

Environmental monitoring data on 2-nitrotoluene in effluents, wastewater or surface water near industrial sites are provided in Table 1.3 and those in water or sediments are given in Table 1.4. 2-Nitrotoluene was found at highest concentrations (up to 102 000 μg/L) in the wastewater of a manufacturing plant in India (Swaminathan et al., 1987).

Table 1.3. Environmental occurrence of 2-nitrotoluene in effluents, wastewater or surface water near industrial sites.

Table 1.3

Environmental occurrence of 2-nitrotoluene in effluents, wastewater or surface water near industrial sites.

Table 1.4. Environmental occurrence of 2-nitrotoluene in water or sediments.

Table 1.4

Environmental occurrence of 2-nitrotoluene in water or sediments.

2-Nitrotoluene is a break-down product of di- and trinitrotoluenes. It was detected in the wastewater or effluent (concentrations up to 16 000 μg/L) from di- and trinitrotoluenes-manufacturing plants, in surface water near former munitions-manufacturing plants in Germany (concentrations up to 22 μg/L), in ground- (concentrations up to 140 000 μg/L) and surface water (concentrations up to 0.12 μg/L) at several munitions-manufacturing plants in the USA, in groundwater at a military training facility (maximum concentration, 25 μg/L), and in wastewater from a paper mill (40 μg/L) and from a research facility (181 μg/L) (Table 1.3).

Numerous studies have detected 2-nitrotoluene in rivers, namely in the River Waal, the River Rhine, the River Maas and the River Elbe (Table 1.4). Most, but not all, of the reported values were below 1 μg/L; one study reported a mean concentration of 40 μg/L in samples from the River Elbe taken in Germany (Götz et al., 1998). Much higher levels (ranging up to 8600 μg/L) have been reported in rivers in China (Men et al., 2010). 2-Nitrotoluene was also detected in groundwater samples taken in France (Duguet et al., 1988) and in drinking-water in Germany (Kool et al., 1982).

(d) Soil

In soil, 2-nitrotoluene is predicted to have moderate mobility based on an estimated soil absorption coefficient of 420. Volatilization of 2-nitrotoluene is expected from moist soil (based on a Henry’ Law constant of 1.25 × 10−5 atm.m3/mol) but not from dry soil (based on its vapour pressure of 0.188 mm Hg) (HSDB, 2004). However, it is unlikely to be removed from the soil by oxidation, chemical hydrolysis or biodegradation. The European Commission (2008) estimated that the half-lives for biodegradation were 300 days in soil and 3014 days in sediment.

2-Nitrotoluene is suspected to be a pollutant at munitions sites, but no data are available. It was found at a concentration of 1.4 ppm in soil contaminated with trinitrotoluene at a historical military testing site (Radtke et al., 2002).

1.3.4. Estimated human intake of ortho-nitrotoluene

The European Commission (2008) developed a model to predict indirect exposure to 2-nitrotoluene from the environment using data collected from three industrial sites in Italy (see Section 1.3.2). The estimated daily dose for the region was 2.17 × 10−7 mg/kg body weight (bw); the estimated intakes from various other sources are provided in Table 1.5.

Table 1.5. Estimated human daily intake of 2-nitrotoluene.

Table 1.5

Estimated human daily intake of 2-nitrotoluene.

1.4. Regulations and guidelines

Occupational exposure limits and guidelines for 2-nitrotoluene in several countries are presented in Table 1.6.

Table 1.6. Occupational exposure limits and guidelines for 2-nitrotoluene.

Table 1.6

Occupational exposure limits and guidelines for 2-nitrotoluene.

2. Cancer in Humans

No studies of human cancer were identified that evaluated specific exposure to 2-nitrotoluene. Occupational exposure to 2-nitrotoluene may occur during the manufacture of magenta. Although the Working Group was aware of studies that reported exposure to dinitrotoluene and trinitrotoluene, they did not specifically mention exposure to 2-nitrotoluene and were therefore not reviewed.

2.1. Cohort studies

2.1.1. Background

Magenta production is classified by IARC as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1), based on sufficient evidence that the production of magenta causes bladder cancer in humans. IARC also concluded that there was inadequate evidence in humans for the carcinogenicity of magenta itself (IARC, 2010). The IARC evaluation was based on a review of one case report (Rehn, 1895), two cohort studies (Case & Pearson, 1954; Rubino et al., 1982) of magenta-manufacturing workers (not exposed to 1- or 2-naphthylamine or benzidine) and one case–control study of occupational exposure to magenta (Vineis & Magnani, 1985). One of the cohort studies discussed the process used to manufacture New Magenta (New Fuchsin, a component of magenta) at a dyestuff factory in northern Italy (Rubino et al.1982; IARC, 2010). In this factory, fuchsin was manufactured by two different processes, both of which involved exposure to 2-nitrotoluene. In the first process, 2-nitrotoluene was produced as an intermediate (during the conversion of toluene to ortho-toluidine); in the second process, it was used as a raw ingredient (Rubino et al., 1982). The other studies of magenta production did not describe the manufacturing process, and are not reviewed here because it is not known whether the subjects were exposed to 2-nitrotoluene (for a review of these studies, see IARC, 2010).

2.1.2. Dyestuff manufacturing workers

See Table 2.1

Table 2.1. Cohort study of dyestuff workers.

Table 2.1

Cohort study of dyestuff workers.

Rubino et al.(1982) conducted a retrospective cohort study of dyestuff workers in a plant that manufactured aromatic amines and used them in azo dyes. The factory began its operations in 1922, and the manufacture of β-naphthylamine was discontinued in 1960. The cohort comprised 906 men who had worked at the plant for at a least 1 month between 1922 and 1970. Vital status (95.8% complete) was accessed using personal records and from municipal registries, and cause of death was obtained from death certificates. Deaths were observed from 1946 to 1976, and expected numbers of deaths were calculated using national rates for 1951–76. Information on exposure was obtained from personal and factory records, and workers were classified into 10 different dye-manufacturing categories, including the manufacture of α- and β-naphthylamine and benzidine, which are known bladder carcinogens. Workers involved in the manufacture of these dyes were excluded from the other dye categories and workers involved in the other manufacturing categories did not change jobs. Of the 868 men with available personal records, 53 were involved in the manufacture of fuchsin and safranine T, and were potentially exposed to 2-nitrotoluene, and other known or suspected carcinogens such as ortho-toluidine and 4,4'-methylenebis(2-methylaniline).

Among the total cohort, a statistically significant excess of mortality from all cancers was found (ratio of observed versus expected [standardized mortality ratio (SMR)], 2.65 [95% confidence interval (CI): 2.15–3.24]; 96 observed deaths) due primarily to cancers of the bladder (SMR, 29.27 [95%CI: 20.50–40.52]; 36 exposed deaths), but also cancers of the lung (SMR, 1.78 [95%CI: 0.97–2.98]; five exposed deaths), larynx (SMR, 3.55 [95%CI: 1.15–8.28]; five exposed deaths) and oesophagus (SMR, 4.72 [95%CI: 1.53–11.01]; 10 exposed deaths).

Among fuchsin- and safranine T-manufacturing workers potentially exposed to 2-nitrotoluene, a large excess of mortality from bladder cancer was found (SMR, 62.5 [95%CI: 20.29–145.85]; five exposed cases). Findings for other cancer sites (such as the lung, larynx and oesophagus) were not reported. [It is not possible to evaluate whether 2-nitrotoluene played a causal role in bladder cancer in this study because the workers were also exposed to ortho-toluidine, which causes bladder cancer in humans and is classified by IARC as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1, IARC, 2010).]

3. Cancer in Experimental Animals

Carcinogenicity studies of oral administration of 2-nitrotoluene in the diet to mice and rats have been conducted (NTP, 2002), the results of which are summarized in Table 3.1 (see also Dunnick et al., 2003).

Table 3.1. Carcinogenicity studies of 2-nitrotoluene by oral administration in the diet to mice (2-year study) and rats (2-year study and 3-month stop-exposure study).

Table 3.1

Carcinogenicity studies of 2-nitrotoluene by oral administration in the diet to mice (2-year study) and rats (2-year study and 3-month stop-exposure study).

3.1. Oral administration

3.1.1. Mouse

Groups of 60 male and 60 female B6C3F1 mice were fed diets containing 0 (controls), 1250, 2500 or 5000 ppm 2-nitrotoluene (equivalent to average daily doses of approximately 0, 165, 360 or 700 and 150, 320 or 710 mg/kg bw in males and females, respectively) for 105 weeks. All males in the 2500- and 5000-ppm groups died before the end of the study. Treated males and females had an increased incidence of haemangiosarcoma located in the skeletal muscle, subcutaneous tissue or mesentery and carcinoma of the large intestine (caecum). In treated female mice, the incidence of hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma was increased (NTP, 2002; Dunnick et al., 2003).

3.1.2. Rat

2-Nitrotoluene caused early tumour formation in a 13-week study in male F344/N rats fed 0, 625, 1250, 2500, 5000 or 10 000 ppm in the diet; mesothelioma of the tunica vaginalis (3/10) was observed in the 5000-ppm group (Dunnick, 1993; Dunnick et al., 1994).

In a subsequent 26-week study in male F344/N rats fed 0 or 5000 ppm 2-nitrotoluene in the diet, mesothelioma of the tunica vaginalis (5/20 at 5000 ppm) and cholangiocarcinoma (2/20 at 5000 ppm) occurred after 13 weeks of treatment followed by a 13-week recovery period. In the 26-week exposure arm of this study, mesothelioma of the tunica vaginalis (7/20 at 5000 ppm) and cholangiocarcinoma (1/20 at 5000 ppm) also developed (NTP, 2000).

A 105-week feeding study was conducted in male and female F344/N rats. A stop-exposure study (exposure for 13 weeks then no further treatment until the end of the 105 weeks) was also conducted in male F344/N rats. In the main study, groups of 60 males and 60 females were fed diets containing 0 (controls), 625, 1250 or 2000 ppm 2-nitrotoluene (equivalent to average daily doses of approximately 0, 25, 50 or 90 and 0, 30, 60 or 100 mg/kg bw in males and females, respectively) for 105 weeks. In the 13-week stop-exposure study, groups of 60 male rats were fed diets containing 2000 or 5000 ppm 2-nitrotoluene (equivalent to average daily doses of approximately 125 or 315 mg/kg bw) for 13 weeks and were maintained on control diet for the remainder of the 105-week study period. The control group of 60 male rats that received untreated feed in the main study served as the control group for the stop-exposure study. All males in the 2000-ppm group in the main study, all males in the 5000-ppm stop-exposure group and all but three males in the 1250-ppm group in the main study died before the end of the 105 weeks. In the main study, 2-nitrotoluene increased the incidence of mesothelioma, skin lipoma, hepatocellular adenoma or carcinoma (combined), cholangiocarcinoma and alveolar/bronchiolar adenoma or carcinoma (combined) in males, and that of mammary gland fibroadenoma, skin fibroma and/or fibrosarcoma and hepatocellular adenoma in males and females. At the end of 2 years, the incidence of mesothelioma, skin lipoma, fibroma and fibrosarcoma, hepatocellular adenoma or carcinoma (combined), cholan giocarcinoma, alveolar/bronchiolar adenoma or carcinoma (combined), haemangioma or haemangiosarcoma (combined), and mammary gland fibroadenoma was also increased in male rats in the stop-exposure study (NTP, 2002; Dunnick et al., 2003).

4. Other Relevant Data

4.1. Absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion

4.1.1. Humans

(a) Absorption, distribution and excretion

Ahlborg et al.(1985) studied workers in a chemical factory that produced pharmaceuticals and explosives, including primarily trinitrotoluene but also small amounts of 2-nitrotoluene as a contaminant, and found that only those workers exposed to trinitrotoluene had urine that was mutagenic in Salmonella typhimurium TA98 in the absence of metabolic activation; the addition of a metabolic activation system increased the mutagenic potency of the urine, but not significantly. Only trinitrotoluene, and none of the other nitrotoluenes, induced the observed mutagenic activity. A follow-up study showed the presence of diazo-positive metabolites in the urine, but the assay method could not ascribe these to any specific compound (Ahlborg et al., 1988).

(b) Metabolism

Jones et al.(2005a) analysed urinary metabolites in workers who manufactured dinitrotoluenes and trinitrotoluene in Liaoning, Liaoning Province, China. Nitrobenzoic acids were found in 96% and 73% of the urine samples from workers exposed to 2-nitrotoluene, and 4-nitrotoluene respectively, and air concentrations of neither dinitrotoluenes nor 2-nitrotoluene correlated with the concentrations of nitrobenzoic acids. The air concentrations of 2-nitrotoluene and 4-nitrotoluene were 759 ± 836 μg/m3 and 685 ± 500 μg/m3, respectively, and the concentrations (μmol/L) of the urinary metabolites were 4.25 ± 5.76 2-nitrobenzoic acid, 0.33 ± 0.65 2-nitrobenzyl alcohol, 0.12 ± 0.40 4-nitrobenzoic acid and 0.01 ± 0.03 4-nitrobenzyl alcohol (Jones et al., 2005a; Sabbioni et al., 2006). Thus, nitrobenzoic acids are the primary urinary metabolites in humans exposed to 2-nitrotoluene and 4-nitrotoluene.

4.1.2. Experimental systems

(a) Absorption, distribution, and excretion

Chism et al.(1984) collected excreta 72 hours after administration of a single oral dose (200 mg/kg bw) of radiolabeled 2-nitrotoluene to male F344 rats. The radiolabel was excreted rapidly (86% within 24 hours). The major route of excretion was urinary; 70–85% of the dose was excreted in the urine in 72 hours. Within that period, 5–13% and 0–0.1% of the dose were excreted in the faeces and in exhaled air, respectively. 2-Nitrobenzoic acid was the major metabolite excreted in the urine 72 hours after administration (29% of the dose); other metabolites identified included 2-nitrobenzyl glucuronide (14% of the dose) and S-(2-nitrobenzyl)-N-acetylcysteine (12% of the dose).

(b) Metabolism

de Bethizy & Rickert (1984) incubated 2-nitrotoluene with isolated male F344 rat hepatocytes for up to 1 hour and identified the following metabolites: 2-nitrobenzyl alcohol (52%), 2-nitrobenzyl glucuronide (28%), an unidentified metabolite (20%) and 2-nitrobenzoic acid (3%). Chism & Rickert (1985) administered 200 mg/kg bw 2-nitrotoluene to male and female F344 rats; 12 hours later, males had excreted 28.6% and females had excreted 9.6% of the dose in the bile. Of the material excreted in the bile, 77% in males (22% of the dose) and 86% in females (8.3% of the dose) was 2-nitrobenzyl glucuronide. Inhibition of enterohepatic circulation by bile-duct cannulation resulted in a decrease in liver macromolecular covalent binding of 98 and 85%, respectively, in males and females, showing that enterohepatic circulation is necessary for the hepatic macromolecular covalent binding of 2-nitrotoluene in both sexes of F344 rats.

In rodents, 2-nitrotoluene undergoes oxidation and conjugation in the liver to form ortho-nitrobenzyl alcohol and nitrobenzyl glucuronide, which are then excreted into the intestine via the bile and converted to aminobenzyl alcohol by intestinal microflora through reduction of the nitro group. The aminobenzyl alcohol is then re-absorbed and metabolized in the liver, resulting in an electrophilic compound that can bind to hepatic DNA — possibly a nitrenium ion (Chism & Rickert, 1985) specific to 2-methylaniline. Hepatic DNA adducts and haemoglobin adducts, together with hepatic DNA damage (assessed by the unscheduled DNA synthesis assay), have been found in 2-nitrotoluene-treated rats (see Section 4.2.2a; Doolittle et al., 1983; Jones & Sabbioni, 2003).

4.2. Genetic and related effects

4.2.1. Humans

(a) Haemoglobin adducts

Jones et al.(2005b) found a wide variety of haemoglobin adducts among workers in a factory that produced di- and trinitrotoluenes, one of which was a 2-methylaniline–haemoglobin adduct, which derives specifically and only from 2-nitrotoluene.

(b) Mutations

There were no reports of 2-nitrotoluene-induced mutations in humans. However, workers exposed to nitrotoluenes (including 2-nitrotoluene) in a factory in China had highly mutagenic urine, with up to 141.6 revertants/mL-equivalent for enzymatically hydrolysed urine (with β-glucuronidase and arylsulfatase) for the 75th percentiles in S. typhimurium strain YG1041 in the absence of metabolic activation (Sabbioni et al., 2006). [The Working Group noted that this value is higher than that generally found in the urine of unexposed subjects (< 10 revertants/mL-equivalent)].

(c) Chromosomal effects

Sabbioni et al.(2006) found an increased frequency of chromosomal aberrations (including gaps) in the circulating blood lymphocytes of factory workers exposed to a variety of nitrotoluenes; the concentration of 2-nitrotoluene in air was 759 ± 836 μg/m3. Exposure to 2-nitrotoluene resulted in the excretion of 2-nitrotoluene metabolites in the urine (see Section 4.1.1b).

4.2.2. Experimental systems

(a) DNA and haemoglobin adducts

A single oral dose of radiolabelled 2-nitrotoluene given to male F344 rats resulted in the covalent binding of radioactivity to liver DNA, which was maximal 12 hours after administration. Prior administration of inhibitors of sulfotransferase (SULT) markedly reduced the level of bound material, indicating that 2-nitrotoluene requires SULT for its conversion to a form that binds to l iver DNA in vivo (Rickert et al., 1984). After incubation L87of radiolabelled 2-aminobenzyl alcohol with calf-thymus DNA, male F344 rat hepatic cytosol and 3′-phosphoadenosine 5′-phosphosulfate, the radiolabel bound covalently to DNA; this binding was prevented by the addition of a SULT inhibitor, 2,6-dichloro-4-nitrophenol. The authors suggested that 2-aminobenzyl sulfate was probably the metabolite that bound to DNA (Chism & Rickert, 1989).

Although a single oral administration of 2-nitrotoluene by gavage to female Wistar rats did not produce any detectable DNA adducts in the liver, it did produce hydrolysable haemoglobin adducts (Jones & Sabbioni, 2003). When male WELS-Fohm rats were given 2-nitrotoluene on 5 days a week for 12 weeks, haemoglobin adducts were formed, which were identified as 2-methylaniline after mild base treatment. Hepatic DNA adducts of methylaniline at guanosine and adenosine were also formed, and there was a strong linear relationship between the frequencies of both haemoglobin and DNA adducts and dose, suggesting that haemoglobin adducts could be a useful surrogate marker for hepatic DNA adducts (Jones et al., 2003).

(b) DNA damage

2-Nitrotoluene administered by gavage to male F344 rats induced unscheduled DNA synthesis, which is a measure of DNA damage. However, unscheduled DNA synthesis was not observed in female rats or germ-free male rats (Doolittle et al., 1983). This study highlighted the obligatory role of intestinal bacteria in the metabolic activation of 2-nitrotoluene, most probably via nitroreductase activity provided by the gut flora, as well as sex differences in the ability of 2-nitrotoluene to cause DNA damage.

In standard cell-culture methods that include serum, 2-nitrotoluene did not induce unscheduled DNA synthesis in the spermatocytes of rats exposed in vivo (Working & Butterworth, 1984). Similarly, it did not induce unscheduled DNA synthesis in vitro in rat hepatocytes or hepatocytes from six human subjects (Butterworth et al., 1989). However, in defined serum-free media, 2-nitrotoluene did induce unscheduled DNA synthesis in primary rat hepatocytes (Parton et al., 1995). The positive results in this study probably reflected the ability of serum-free medium to retain the integrity of the cell membrane and cell-surface receptors more efficiently than serum-containing medium.

2-Nitrotoluene did not induce DNA damage in the rec assay (deficiency in recombination) in Bacillus subtilis (Shimizu & Yano, 1986).

(c) Mutations

Numerous studies have confirmed that 2-nitrotoluene is not mutagenic in a variety of Salmonella strains in the presence or absence of metabolic activation (Chiu et al., 1978; Tokiwa et al., 1981; Spanggord et al., 1982b; Haworth et al., 1983; Shimizu & Yano, 1986).

(d) Chromosomal effects

In Chinese hamster ovary cells, 2-nitrotoluene induced sister chromatid exchange in the presence of metabolic activation, but gave an equivocal response in its absence, and did not induce chromosomal aberrations in the presence or absence of metabolic activation (Galloway et al., 1987). It did not induce chromosomal aberrations but did induce polyploidy in Chinese hamster lung cells (Ishidate et al., 1988). 2-Nitrotoluene did not induce micronuclei in the bone marrow of male mice or rats injected intraperitoneally, but gave equivocal results for the induction of micronuclei in the peripheral blood of male mice. No micronuclei were seen in the peripheral blood erythrocytes of female mice administered 2-nitrotoluene in the diet for 13 weeks (NTP, 2002).

(e) Alterations in oncogenes and suppressor genes in tumours

Several studies have investigated mutations and altered gene expression in various types of tumour induced by 2-nitrotoluene in the National Toxicology Program (NTP, 2002) rodent bioassay. The predominant tumours in mice were haemangiosarcomas. Hong et al.(2003) found that 13/15 (87%) of the haemangiosarcomas of the skeletal muscle, subcutaneous tissue or mesentery had mutations in at least one of the following genes: ras, Tp53 or β-catenin (Catnb). In particular, 11/15 (73%) had misssense mutations in Tp53 exons 5–8 and 7/15 (47%) had deletions at exon 2 splice-sites or smaller deletions in the Catnb gene. In contrast, only 1/15 (7%) of the tumours had mutations in the K-ras gene. Spontaneous haemangiosarcomas lacked both p53 and β-catenin protein (encoded by Catnb) expression and ras mutations. The mutations in Tp53 and Catnb may have resulted from the genotoxic effects of 2-nitrotoluene and played a role in the pathogenesis of the haemangiosarcomas in 2-nitrotoluene-treated mice.

Tumours of the large intestine (caecum) were the other type of tumour induced by 2-nitrotoluene in mice; this was especially unusual, because it had not been observed among either controls or treated mice in more than 500 carcinogenicity studies conducted by the NTP (Sills et al., 2004). These gland-forming tumours were positive for cytokeratin 20 and negative for cytokeratin 7. Accumulation of β-catenin protein was found in 8/10 (80%) of the caecal carcinomas, and increased cyclin D1 and p53 protein expression was detected in 8/11 (73%); there was no difference in the expression of adenomatous polyposis coli protein between caecal tumours and normal colon tissue. All tumours had mutations in exon 2 in the Catnb gene (which corresponds to exon 3 in the human gene), 9/11 (82%) had mutations in exon 7 of Tp53 and 9/11 (82%) had specific G→T transversions at codons 10 or 12 in K-ras. These mutations and alterations in proteins activate signal-transduction pathways (K-ras and Catnb), disrupt the cell cycle and by-pass G1-arrest (Tp53, cyclin D1). These changes are common features of human colon cancer and probably contribute to the pathogenesis of the large intestinal cancers in mice treated with 2-nitrotoluene.

(f) Changes in gene expression

Starting at 6 weeks of age, mice were fed 2-nitrotoluene for 2 weeks; livers were then collected and microarray analysis was performed among 20 842 genes. Several cancer-related genes, including the fragile histidine triad gene, the WW domain-containing oxidoreductase gene and the epidermal growth factor receptor gene, were downregulated, whereas P21, Cyclin G1, the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate:quinone oxidoreductase gene and the regulator of G-protein signalling 16 gene were upregulated. The early changes in gene expression observed in this study involved apoptosis-and cell cycle-related genes (Iida et al., 2005).

Kim et al.(2005) evaluated the ability of 2-nitrotoluene, and various other agents, to alter gene expression in mouse lymphoma L5178Y cells, which do not have a functional Tp53 gene and are more sensitive to DNA damage. differences were found between genotoxic and non-genotoxic (such as 2-nitrotoluene) agents for genes involved in cell-cycle control, stress response and immune response; however, no gene cluster with altered expression was found that was specific for the four carcinogenic agents studied.

Microarray analysis of peritoneal mesotheliomas induced by 2-nitrotoluene in male rats found alterations in the expression of the insulin-like growth factor 1 gene, the p38 mitogen-activated protein-kinase gene, Wnt/Catnb and the integrin signalling pathways gene; these changes are also observed in human mesotheliomas (Kim et al., 2006).

4.3. Other mechanistic considerations

4.3.1. Effects on cell physiology

Sabbioni et al.(2006) evaluated a wide variety of biomarkers among nitrotoluene workers in a factory in China, and found that haemoglobin adduct levels were higher in workers who were positive for glucose and/or protein in their urine, and for urobilinogen. The levels of bilirubin and urea in serum were significantly lower in workers with high levels of haemoglobin adducts, and their white blood cell count was lower. [The positive results for protein and glucose in the urine could be caused by tubular or glomerular damage induced by nitrotoluenes.] the nephrotoxicity of nitrotoluenes has been documented in miners exposed to dinitrotoluene (Brüning et al., 1999, 2002) and in rodents exposed to 2-nitrotoluene (NTP, 1992).

Sabbioni et al.(2006) also found that increased exposure to nitrotoluenes among these workers resulted in increased levels of alkaline phosphatase and decreased levels of alanine aminotransferase. Albumin and total protein decreased, but the concentration of haemoglobin and red blood cell count increased with increased exposure to nitrotoluenes. [The high levels of alkaline phosphatase and the low level of serum proteins could indicate hepatotoxicity, which, together with liver cancer, were noted in the NTP (2002) rodent study of 2-nitrotoluene.]

4.3.2. Structure-activity relationships

Many studies have investigated the metabolism, DNA binding, DNA damage, and carcinogenicity associated with various nitrotoluenes. For example, 2- but not 3- or 4-nitrotoluene induces unscheduled DNA synthesis (Doolittle et al., 1983), and 2-nitrotoluene binds covalently to liver DNA in vivo (Jones et al., 2003). In addition, 2-nitrotoluene, similarly to 2,6-dinitrotoluene, requires SULT for its conversion to a form that binds covalently to liver DNA (Rickert et al., 1984).

4.4. Susceptibility

4.4.1. Genetic polymorphisms and enzyme induction

Sabbioni et al.(2006) evaluated various genotypes among a group of workers exposed to nitrotoluenes (including 2-nitrotoluene) and found that the glutathione S-transferase M1 (GSTM1)-positive genotype was significantly more common in controls than in the exposed group [an example of the ‘healthy-worker effect’]. This probably reflected an elevated susceptibility of the GSTM1-null genotype to the adverse effects of exposure to dinitrotoluene, such as nausea (odds ratio, 8.8; 95%CI: 2.4–32.2). The levels of methylaniline–haemoglobin adducts, which are derived only from 2-nitrotoluene, were elevated among workers with the GSTM1-positive genotype, as well as among those with the N-acetyltransferase 1 (NAT1) rapid genotype. When the concentration of 2-nitrotoluene in the air was also considered, the correlation between the NAT2 slow genotype and methylaniline– haemoglobin adducts was quite high (r = 0.97; P < 0.01). There was a lesser association (P < 0.1) between the levels of methylaniline–haemoglobin adducts and the SULT1A1 Arg/Arg genotype and the SULT1A2 Asn/Asn genotype. The results suggest that N-hydroxyarylamine sulfonation may be more important than N-sulfonation for the formation of haemoglobin adducts following exposure to nitrotoluene. The high-activity genotype, which induces high levels of the sulfuric acid ester, may cause most of the metabolite to solubilize back to the N-hydroxy derivative, thus giving an additional opportunity for the formation of the haemoglobin adducts.

4.5. Mechanisms of carcinogenesis

A study in rats found a high correlation between levels of 2-nitrotoluene-induced hepatic DNA adducts and haemoglobin adducts, indicating that haemoglobin adducts are a reasonable surrogate for hepatic DNA adducts in rats (Jones et al., 2003) and, by extension, possibly in humans. Thus, the high levels of haemoglobin adducts measured in Chinese factory workers (Sabbioni et al., 2006; see Section 4.4.1), including methylaniline–haemoglobin adducts, which derive directly from 2-nitrotoluene, may indicate the presence of nitrotoluene-derived hepatic DNA adducts, although these were not measured directly. The association with SULT enzymes, based on the genotyping data among the factory workers and nitrotoluene–haemoglobin adducts, also supports the possible presence of nitrotoluene–DNA adducts — the formation of which in rats requires SULT activity.

Nearly all of the Chinese factory workers exposed to a mixture of nitrotoluenes had nitrobenzoic acids in their urine, and 2-nitrobenzoic acid, which is derived directly from 2-nitrotoluene, is mutagenic in the absence of metabolic activation in Salmonella (Sundvall et al., 1984). A wide variety of other nitrobenzoic acids, nitrobenzyl alcohols and nitrosulfonic acids are also mutagenic (Grummt et al., 2006). The factory workers also had highly mutagenic urine, indicative of systemic exposure to genotoxins, which was probably due to benzyl alcohol metabolites of nitrotoluenes, especially those of the dinitrotoluenes, because of the high correlation between dinitrotoluene-derived haemoglobin adducts and urinary mutagenicity (Sabbioni et al., 2006). Thus, there is strong evidence that a genotoxic mechanism underlies the induction of tumours by 2-nitrotoluene in rodents and possibly humans.

5. Summary of Data Reported

5.1. Exposure data

2-Nitrotoluene is isolated from mixtures of nitrotoluene stereoisomers and is produced by nitration of toluene with an aqueous sulfuric/nitric acid mixture. Occupational exposure to 2-nitrotoluene can occur during its production or use in the production of azo dyes, such as ortho-toluidine, magenta and sulfur dyes, as well as rubber, agricultural chemicals and explosives.

2-Nitrotoluene can be released into the environment (primarily in air and water) during its manufacture and use. It has been detected in wastewater near 2-nitrotoluene-manufacturing plants and in ambient air and surface water. It may also be formed from the degradation of di- or trinitrotoluenes and has been detected in waste-water, effluents, groundwater, surface water and soil near facilities that produced or used these chemicals, namely munitions-manufacturing plants.

5.2. Human carcinogenicity data

No studies of human cancer were identified that evaluated specific exposure to 2-nitrotoluene; however, one cohort study of dyestuff workers stated that exposure to 2-nitrotoluene occurred (from its use as an raw ingredient or formation as an intermediate) during the manufacturing process of New Fuchsin (a component of magenta). Magenta production, but not magenta, is classified by IARC as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1). In this study, a very large excess of mortality from bladder cancer was found among fuchsin- and safranine T-manufacturing workers, who were potentially exposed to 2-nitrotoluene. These workers were also exposed to ortho-toluidine, which causes bladder cancer and is classified by IARC as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1); thus, it is not possible to evaluate whether 2-nitrotoluene played a causal role in the incidence of bladder cancer.

5.3. Animal carcinogenicity data

In a 2-year study, male and female mice fed 2-nitrotoluene in the diet had an increased incidence of haemangiosarcoma and carcinoma of the large intestine (caecum). The incidence of hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma was also increased in females.

2-Nitrotoluene caused mesothelioma of the tunica vaginalis and cholangiocarcinomas after 13 or 26 weeks of oral administration in the diet to male rats. In a 2-year study in male and female rats, administration of 2-nitrotoluene in the diet increased the incidence of lipoma, fibroma and fibrosarcoma of the skin, mesothelioma, mammary gland fibroadenoma, hepatocellular adenoma or carcinoma (combined), cholangiocarcinoma and alveolar bronchiolar adenoma or carcinoma (combined) in male rats. Treatment-related tumours in female rats included skin fibroma, and skin fibroma or fibrosarcoma (combined), mammary gland fibroadenoma and hepatocellular adenoma. In a 2-year stop-exposure study in which male rats were exposed to 2-nitrotoluene for 13 weeks and then maintained on untreated diet until the end of the experiment, an increase in the incidence of mesothelioma, skin lipoma, fibroma and fibrosarcoma, cholangiocarcinoma, hepatocellular adenoma or carcinoma (combined), alveolar/bronchiolar adenoma or carcinoma (combined), and haemangioma or haemangiosarcoma (combined) was also observed. Thus, even these short exposures to 2-nitrotoluene induced cancer.

There was consistency in the tumour response across the 13-week, 26-week, 2-year and stop-exposure studies.

5.4. Other relevant data

In rodents, 2-nitrotoluene undergoes oxidation and conjugation in the liver to form 2-nitrobenzyl alcohol glucuronide, which is then excreted into the intestine via the bile and converted to aminobenzyl alcohol by intestinal microflora through reduction of the nitro group. The aminobenzyl alcohol is then re-absorbed and metabolized in the liver, resulting in an electrophilic compound that can bind to liver DNA and form DNA adducts. A similar pathway probably operates in humans, because 2-nitrotoluene is primarily metabolized to nitrobenzoic acids, which have been found as urinary metabolites in both humans and rodents.

Urine from workers exposed to a mixture of nitrotoluenes containing 2-nitrotoluene was mutagenic in bacteria. 2-Nitrobenzoic acid, which is derived directly from 2-nitrotoluene, is mutagenic in bacteria in the absence of metabolic activation. Many other nitrobenzoic acids, nitrobenzylalcohols and nitrosulfonic acids are also mutagenic.

Exposure of rats to 2-nitrotoluene induced a specific protein adduct, 2-methylaniline–haemoglobin, and liver DNA adducts of 2-methylaniline at guanosine and adenosine, which were found to be well correlated. This observation suggests that the haemoglobin adducts may serve as a reasonable biomarker of a systemic genotoxic effect.

In workers exposed to a mixture of nitrotoluenes containing 2-nitrotoluene, elevated levels of chromosomal aberrations were found in circulating blood lymphocytes, as were 2-methylaniline–haemoglobin adducts. Because this protein biomarker is specific to exposure to 2-nitrotoluene and was found to be correlated with the formation of DNA adducts in rat liver, and because the urine of exposed workers is mutagenic, there is strong evidence to suggest that genotoxic metabolites of 2-nitrotoluene are formed in exposed humans. Furthermore, the levels of haemoglobin adducts are also influenced by genotype, including those of glutathione S-transferase, N-acetyltransferase (rapid and slow) and sulfotransferase 1A1 genes.

Although exposure of humans to a mixture of nitrotoluenes containing 2-nitrotoluene results in genotoxic effects (i.e. mutagenic urine), 2-nitrotoluene is generally not mutagenic in standard in-vitro mutagenicity assays in the presence or absence of metabolic activation, presumably because the complex metabolism required for its activation is not present in such assays.

Analysis of mutations and changes in gene expression in 2-nitrotoluene-induced haemangiosarcomas in mice found that mutations in Tp53 and β-catenin probably resulted from the genotoxic effects of 2-nitrotoluene and played a role in the formation of the tumours. Similarly, mutations in β-catenin, Tp53 and K-ras were found in 2-nitrotoluene-induced tumours of the large intestine in mice, and these are common features of human colon cancer. In 2-nitrotoluene-induced mesotheliomas in rats, alterations in expression were found in various genes such as insulin-like growth factor, p38 mitogen-activated protein-kinase, Wnt/β-catenin and integrin-signalling pathways. Alterations in the expression of these genes are also found in human mesotheliomas.

Overall, there is strong evidence that a genotoxic mechanism underlies the induction of tumours in 2-nitrotoluene-exposed rodents. The evidence for the relevance of this mechanism to humans is strong.

6. Evaluation

6.1. Cancer in humans

There is inadequate evidence in humans for the carcinogenicity of 2-nitrotoluene.

6.2. Cancer in experimental animals

There is sufficient evidence in experimental animals for the carcinogenicity of 2-nitrotoluene.

6.3. Overall evaluation

2-Nitrotoluene is probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A).

6.4. Rationale

In making the overall evaluation, the Working Group took into consideration that there is strong evidence that a mutational mechanism underlies the induction of tumours in both rodents and humans exposed to 2-nitrotoluene.

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©International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2013 (published online, 2012)
Bookshelf ID: NBK373187
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