ABSTRACT

Objective: To review the diagnosis, evaluation, and management of non-diabetic hypoglycemia in adults. Methods: A literature review using PubMed and Google Scholar was performed. In absence of data, clinical expert opinion was provided. Results: Hypoglycemia in an individual without diabetes is uncommon mainly because of a tightly regulated counterregulatory physiological response. A detailed medical history, review of medications and physical exam findings are critical first steps in providing guidance for further investigation in a non-diabetic person with documented hypoglycemia based on Whipple’s triad (presence of symptoms when plasma glucose concentrations are low and absence of symptoms with normalized glycemia). In this review, we highlight strategies to diagnose and treat hypoglycemic disorders in non-diabetic individuals based on underlying mechanisms. Conclusion: Evaluation and management of non-diabetic hypoglycemia should be individualized based on clinical presentation and suspected diagnoses. For complete coverage of all related areas of Endocrinology, please visit our on-line FREE web-text, WWW.ENDOTEXT.ORG.

INTRODUCTION

In healthy humans, glucose concentrations are efficiently maintained within a narrow range by the physiological mechanisms that respond to intermittent exogenous nutrient ingestion by enhancing glucose utilization and respond to intervals of nutrient deprivation by enhancing glucose production. Deviation of glucose from the normal range in both hyper or hypoglycemia only occurs when physiological mechanisms involved in maintaining the balance between the glucose utilization and the glucose production fail. As such, hypoglycemia is a manifestation of a heterogeneous group of underlying disorders that increase glucose utilization or reduce glucose production or a combination of both.

While hypoglycemia in persons without diabetes is relatively rare (1), the clinical relevance of this condition regarding patient safety, cognitive function, and quality of life is undeniable. Depending on severity and duration, hypoglycemia also can be fatal (2). Furthermore, hypoglycemia blunts defense against subsequent hypoglycemia leading to a vicious cycle of recurrent hypoglycemia (3), which in turn not only exaggerates related morbidities but also makes the diagnosis more complex.

Here, we review the current recommendations regarding diagnosis, pathophysiology, and management of hypoglycemia in non-diabetic individuals. Hypoglycemia in the pediatric population, hypoglycemia caused by anti-diabetic medications, and a comprehensive review of insulinomas can be found in the Endotext chapters entitled “Hypoglycemia in Neonates, Infants, and Children” (4), “Hypoglycemia During Therapy of Diabetes” (5) and “Insulinoma” (6), respectively.

PHYSIOLOGY / PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

Glucose is the main fuel for the brain since it cannot store glycogen or synthesize glucose (7,8). To minimize any disturbance in glucose supplies to the brain and cerebral function, therefore, redundant but very efficient physiological counter-regulatory responses are in place to prevent or correct hypoglycemia (8-10).

DIAGNOSIS AND EVALUATION

Diagnosis of hypoglycemia should be made when symptoms accompany low plasma glucose concentrations (chemical hypoglycemia) but symptoms are absent when plasma glucose levels are normalized (Whipple’s triad (19)).

Chemical hypoglycemia has been defined based on a glucose threshold that can evoke a counterregulatory response. In the fasting state, a decline in glucose below 55 mg/dl causes neurogenic symptoms while insulin secretion is maximally suppressed (insulin < 3 uU/ml and C-peptide < 0.6 ng/ml) and glucagon response is maximized (9).

Awareness of hypoglycemia alerting individuals to correct hypoglycemia is mainly because of increased autonomic nervous system activity triggered by hypoglycemia. The autonomic (neurogenic) hypoglycemic symptoms can be adrenergic (such as palpitation, tremor, and anxiety) or cholinergic (such as sweating, hunger, and paresthesia) (18). As glucose concentrations drop below 48-50 mg/dl during the fasting state, the neuroglycopenic symptoms (caused by brain glucose deprivation) manifest; these symptoms range from behavioral changes, fatigue, and confusion to loss of consciousness or seizure (18,20-22).

Diagnosis of hypoglycemia in the prandial state is much more complex since the glycemic threshold to define hypoglycemia in the prandial state has not been well characterized. Using an oral glucose challenge in 650 healthy individuals in a previous study (23), 10% of subjects developed postprandial nadir glucose concentrations below 47 mg/dl without associated symptoms, suggesting that asymptomatic low glucose events are relatively common following an oral glucose load in normal humans. Hence, the mixed meal test (described below) is the preferred provocative test to diagnose prandial hypoglycemia. Furthermore, recurrent postprandial symptoms suggestive of hypoglycemia but not associated with low glucose concentrations have also been observed in normal individuals (24), indicating that other factors beyond hypoglycemia play a role in provoking autonomic symptoms.

Therefore, after obtaining a detailed medical history and physical exam, diagnosis of hypoglycemia should be confirmed by verification of low glucose concentration associated with symptoms or signs that are relieved by raising glucose values (Whipple’s triad).

A careful history of nutritional status, current medication use, and concurrent multisystem illnesses such as liver, heart, kidney failure, or sepsis, as well as a thorough physical exam and laboratory data, can point to existing primary conditions that predispose to hypoglycemia. This is especially crucial in patients who are often too ill to be subjected to extensive evaluation. For healthy subjects who lack any background predisposing illnesses, the details about timing (relationship to food ingestion, physical activities, day versus nocturnal time), severity (frequency, presence of neuroglycopenia, and requiring assistance to treat), and time of onset of hypoglycemic episodes are critical in differential diagnosis. To understand the pattern of hypoglycemic episodes, reviewing the records of symptoms, activity, food intake along with capillary blood or interstitial glucose levels measured by glucometer or continuous glucose monitoring (CGM), respectively, may be helpful. However, the accuracy of glucometer and CGM is low in the hypoglycemic range, and they should not be used for diagnostic purposes. On the other hand, masked (blinded) monitoring by CGM can provide insights into patterns of hypoglycemic episodes and triggering factors during patients’ daily routine (25).

The flowchart in Figure 1 demonstrates the suggested approach for evaluation in healthy appearing patients after a careful medical history, physical exam, and laboratory data excludes an underlying illness that can predispose to hypoglycemia. Disorders that may cause hypoglycemia are listed in Table 2.

To confirm the diagnosis and explore etiology, it is necessary to collect blood samples during hypoglycemia, whether it occurs spontaneously or by provoked testing that can be selected based on clues from the medical history.

In asymptomatic patients with documented chemical hypoglycemia, artifactual hypoglycemia due to conditions such as reticulocytosis (polycythemia, sickle cell anemia), leukocytosis (leukemia), and thrombocytosis that increase in vitro glycolysis in the blood sample while awaiting laboratory analysis should be considered (26). Also, nadir glucose levels in the prandial state can be low without any associated symptoms, particularly in persons with a history of upper gastrointestinal (GI) surgery (25). A potential diagnostic challenge in using clinical criteria remains in patients who are adapted to recurrent hypoglycemia by blunted autonomic response, so called hypoglycemic unawareness (27). It has been well recognized that antecedent insulin-induced hypoglycemia impairs counterregulatory glucose responses and blunts hypoglycemia symptoms (mainly autonomic symptoms) in normal humans (28). Therefore, in patients with a high index of clinical suspicion, monitoring of symptoms and signs of neuroglycopenia, which is less likely to be affected by recurrent hypoglycemia, and reevaluation over time should be considered.

Figure 1.

Evaluation of non-diabetic hypoglycemia in healthy appearing adults.

Prandial Hypoglycemia

The glycemic threshold to define hypoglycemia after meal ingestion is unknown. However, symptoms associated with plasma glucose less than 50-55 mg/dL during mixed meal test that is relieved by normalization of glucose has been used to confirm meal-induced hypoglycemia (11,25). In the prandial state, provocative testing should use a mixed meal containing protein, carbohydrates, and fat and not oral glucose. This is mainly because the oral glucose challenge has low specificity for detecting clinical hypoglycemia by causing asymptomatic low glucose nadirs as well as hypoglycemia symptoms (mainly autonomic) that do not correlate with low glucose concentrations (23,24).

Currently meal tests are not standardized as both solid and liquid mixed meals as well as variable carbohydrate content from 45 to 105 grams have been used (83). Regardless of approach, meal studies can increase the risk of inducing hypoglycemia, thus, these tests need to be done under supervision by personnel trained in a safe environment.

HYPOGLYCEMIA AFTER BARIATRIC SURGERY

Meal-induced hypoglycemia after upper GI tract (gastrectomy and pyloroplasty) (84) or bariatric surgery (85-87) (Roux-en y gastric bypass surgery [RYGB] and sleeve gastrectomy [SG]) are well documented. One in 10 bariatric subjects develop a late-complication of hypoglycemia (88,89), and one in 150 suffer from severe hypoglycemia requiring an emergency room visit or hospitalization (88). Hypoglycemia in this population is postprandial, progressive, often associated with cognitive impairment and occasionally with loss of consciousness or seizures and is only partially responsive to diet modification or available therapeutic options (25,86,90-92). Despite sporadic case reports of postprandial hypoglycemia after SG (85), this condition, in our experience, is less prevalent, and likely to be of lesser severity than RYGB. Severe hypoglycemia after bariatric surgery is debilitating as it compromises patient safety, cognition, and quality of life (both professional and personal). The long-term health outcomes of this debilitating complication are largely unknown. A recent study (93) using a driver simulator has demonstrated that driving performance and cognitive function is impaired following RYGB during prandial hypoglycemia without any changes in perception of symptoms (94,95).

Differentiating true hypoglycemia from those with prandial asymptomatic low glucose concentration or prandial symptoms without low glucose levels is more challenging in patients after GI surgery than non-operated individuals because of higher frequency of both conditions after bariatric surgery. Using CGM for 5 days has demonstrated that 70% of non-diabetic subjects after RYGB (n=40) had at least one episode of low interstitial glucose concentration (<55 mg/dl) (94). However, 80% of these low glucose events have been shown to be asymptomatic. Furthermore, it is well documented that a large proportion of bariatric patients experience dumping symptoms (91), which are almost identical with autonomic symptoms of hypoglycemia, but not associated with low glucose concentrations. Therefore, it is critical to document Whipple’s triad (neuroglycopenic rather than autonomic symptoms associated with low glucose) during free-living conditions or using mixed meal test to confirm hypoglycemia in this population.

Additional testing should be considered in ill-appearing patients after bariatric surgery to exclude adrenal insufficiency, other critical illnesses, and malnutrition (25). Post bariatric patients who experience fasting hypoglycemia (beyond 5 hours from previous meal ingestion) or hypoglycemia within 6-12 months from surgery should be evaluated for other causes of hypoglycemia such as insulinoma (25).

Underlying mechanisms by which rerouted gut after GI surgeries cause hypoglycemia is not completely understood. However, it is well documented that following RYGB, and to a smaller extent after SG, meal ingestion enhances glucose excursion leading to higher glucose peaks and lower nadir glucose concentrations mainly due to faster nutrient emptying from the stomach pouch/stomach to the gut (96) (Figure 2). Increased glucose delivery from the stomach pouch/ tube-like stomach to the gut after bariatric surgery is associated with hyperinsulinemia, which is exaggerated in RYGB patients with hypoglycemia compared to asymptomatic RYGB subjects (92) (Figure 2). Enhanced meal-induced beta-cell secretion in patients with hypoglycemia after RYGB has been attributed to not only a greater beta-cell sensitivity to increasing glycemia in the first absorptive phase, but also a lower insulin suppression during glycemic decline from peak to glucose nadir (87).

Prandial hyperinsulinemia after RYGB, particularly in patients with hypoglycemia, has been shown to be associated with greater prandial plasma concentration of glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), an insulinotropic gut hormone (87,90,97) (Figure 2). These observations hinted towards a key role for GLP-1 signaling beyond glycemic stimuli in meal-stimulated hyperinsulinemia after RYGB. In fact, we and others have shown that blocking the GLP-1 receptor (GLP-1R) corrects post-RYGB hypoglycemia (87,98).

Figure 2.

The prandial glycemic effects of RYGB are exaggerated in patients with late-complication of hypoglycemia. RYGB enhances prandial glycemic excursion and increases insulin secretion rate (ISR) along with plasma GLP-1 concentrations. Patients with documented hypoglycemia after RYGB have greater insulin and GLP-1 secretin compared to those without. Following RYGB, glucagon response to meal ingestion is enhanced but there is no further increase in response to hypoglycemia. Adapted with permission from Salehi, JCEM, 2014.

Despite a larger meal-induced glucagon response after RYGB compared to non-operated individuals, there is no further increase in plasma glucagon concentration during prandial hyperglycemia (Figure 2), suggestive of dysregulated pancreatic α-cell response. In fact, we have shown that patients with RYGB and SG, glucagon response to insulin-induced hypoglycemia is smaller than healthy individuals without GI surgery (99,100). This data is aligned with a report demonstrating that counterregulatory hormonal response (glucagon, cortisol, and catecholamines) to hypoglycemia is significantly reduced after RYGB compared with before surgery (101). In prandial state using tracer technique, we also have shown that despite a larger prandial plasma glucagon concentration, endogenous glucose production response to hypoglycemia is smaller after RYGB compared to non-operated controls (102), suggestive of diminished liver sensitivity to glucagon. However, we have demonstrated that blocking the GLP-1R increases the prandial hepatic glucose production response to insulin-induced hypoglycemia in RYGB subjects but not in non-operated controls, suggesting that enhanced GLP-1 signal due to rerouted gut can potentially contribute to the impaired counterregulatory response to hypoglycemia (103).

Based on current pathophysiologic understanding treatment strategies that selectively reduce the pace of nutrient delivery to the gut and prandial insulin secretion or improve counterregulatory response are the most effective options. Because of limited therapeutic options at this point, dietary modification remains the cornerstone of management. The goal of dietary modification is to lower prandial glucose spikes while increasing glucose nadirs by (a) lowering the amount of carbohydrates for every meal (<30g) or snacks (<15 g), (b) avoiding simple carbohydrates with high-glycemic index, (c) adding fats and proteins to every meal and snack, and (d) changing the composition of carbohydrate from glucose to fructose (25). Uncooked starch has also been used in this population based on effectiveness in reducing hypoglycemic episodes in patients with diabetes mellitus (104).

The current medical interventions rely on drugs that had previously been used for treatment of other hypoglycemic conditions. Acarbose, an antidiabetic medication, has been utilized as the first drug started with dietary modification. The effect of this intestinal alpha-glucosidase blocker is to block carbohydrate absorption and reduce prandial glycemic excursion after RYGB {Valderas, 2012 #6617}. Adverse effects include flatulence and bloating, especially if the dose is not gradually titrated. Other medications such as somatostatin analogues, diazoxide, and GLP-1R agonists also are used based on sporadic case reports (25). Unblinded CGM in a small size study of patients with post-RYGB hypoglycemia has also been shown to reduce hypoglycemic episodes, likely due to better self-assessment of glycemic excursion and the need for treatments (105). The investigational drugs that are in various phases of development include exendin-(9-30) (Eiger Biopharmaceutical, Paol Alto, CA, USA), a potent GLP-1R antagonist (87,106), glucagon-based drugs (107,108), somatostatin analogues (109) and sodium-glucose cotransporter-1 inhibitor (110).

OTHER PRANDIAL HYPOGLYCEMIC CONDITIONS (RARE)

Nesidioblastosis

Non-insulinoma pancreatogenous hypoglycemia is a rare condition that typically causes hypoglycemia in the postprandial state due to diffuse nesidioblastosis (β cell hypertrophy, islet hyperplasia, increase in β cell mass) (111). The pathogenesis in adults is largely unknown, but likely differs from nesidioblastosis that occurs in congenital hyperinsulinism that is caused by a genetic mutation (112,113). This etiology should be considered in a hypoglycemia patient with a negative 72 hour fast, positive mixed meal test concerning for endogenous hyperinsulinism without a history of GI surgery, and negative imaging for insulinoma. Selective arterial calcium stimulation demonstrates diffuse insulin secretion. Histopathology reveals nesidioblastosis (114-116). Ideal management is difficult to determine as the condition is rare; a majority of the publications are from case reports or case-series, and there is a lack of long-term follow up (82,117). Management can include dietary interventions (low-carbohydrate frequent meals) or medical interventions with diazoxide, acarbose, verapamil or octreotide (82). When these interventions fail, partial pancreatectomy can be performed in patients with severe neuroglycopenic symptoms (118).

Hereditary Fructose Intolerance

Hereditary fructose intolerance is a rare autosomal recessive disorder (<1-9/100,000 annual incidence) caused by fructose-1-phoshate deficiency that results in postprandial hypoglycemia after ingestion of fructose (fruits) or sucrose (sweet foods) that is usually diagnosed in childhood. The diagnosis should be suspected in ill-appearing adults with hypoglycemia associated with GI symptoms (nausea, vomiting, diffuse abdominal pain) after eating fruits or sugar. Clinical symptom resolution within days of elimination suggests hereditary fructose intolerance and can be confirmed by molecular diagnosis on DNA obtained from peripheral leukocytes (68).

CONCLUSION

Non-diabetic hypoglycemia is a rare phenomenon since in healthy individuals counterregulatory mechanisms prevent and correct hypoglycemia by reducing glucose uptake and by enhancing hepatic glucose production. These mechanisms are less well characterized in the prandial state compared to the fasting state. Nonetheless, hypoglycemia only occurs when impaired physiological responses offset the balance between glucose utilization and production. Evaluation of hypoglycemia starts with a detailed history, comprehensive review of medications and clinical presentation, and a thorough physical exam that guides the diagnostic approach in patients with documented hypoglycemia based on Whipple’s triad. In absence of confirmation of hypoglycemia during free living condition provoked testing, prolonged fast or mixed meal test for hypoglycemic conditions reported during fasting or prandial state, respectively, are indicated. Diagnostic and management strategies for non-diabetic hypoglycemia is individualized depending on specific pathophysiology and can include interventions that are dietary, medical, or surgical.

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