This important book for scientists and nonscientists alike calls attention to a most urgent global problem: the rapidly accelerating loss of plant and animal species to increasing human population pressure and the demands of economic development. Based on a major conference sponsored by the National Academy of Sciences and the Smithsonian Institution, Biodiversity creates a systematic framework for analyzing the problem and searching for possible solutions.

Contents

• EDITOR'S FOREWORD
• Chapter 1. The Current State of Biological Diversity
  • The Amount of Biological Diversity
  • The Natural Longevity of Species
  • Rain Forests as Centers of Diversity
  • How Much Diversity is Being Lost?
  • How Fast is Diversity Declining?
  • What Can Be Done?
  • References
• PART 1. CHALLENGES TO THE PRESERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
  • Chapter 2. The Loss of Diversity Causes and Consequences
  • Chapter 3. Tropical Forests and Their Species Going, Going … ?
    • Tropical Forests
    • Extinction Rates: Future
    • Tropical Forest and Climatic Change
    • Repercussions for the Future of Evolution
    • References
  • Chapter 4. Ecological Diversity in Coastal Zones and Oceans
    • Coasts and Oceans—A World View
    • Life According to the Book of Taxonomy
    • Ecological Diversity
    • Conclusions in Prospect
    • References
  • Chapter 5. Diversity Crises in the Geological Past
    • The Phanerozoic Record of Extinction
    • Extinction Rates in Deep Time
    • Evolutionary Consequences of Past Extinctions
    • Extinction in Shallow Time: The Pleistocene Experience
    • Research for the Future
    • References
  • Chapter 6. Estimating Reductions in the Diversity of Tropical Forest Species
    • The Accepted View
    • Number of Species in the Tropics
    • Rate of Change in Tropical Forest Areas
    • Diversity of Forest Types in the Tropics
    • Relationship between Deforestation Rate and Loss of Species
    • Seeking a Better Estimate
    • Calling Attention to the Positive Terms in the Species Extinction Issue
    • Need for Better Land and Resource Management
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
  • Chapter 7. Challenges to Biological Diversity in Urban Areas
• PART 2. HUMAN DEPENDANCE ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
  • Chapter 8. Deep Ecology Meets the Developing World
  • Chapter 9. Screening Plants for New Medicines
    • The Global Importance of Plant-Derived Drugs
    • The Importance of Herbal Drugs
    • The Search for New Plant Drugs
    • Pharmacological Interest in Natural Products
    • Approaches to Drug Discovery from Plants
    • Lack of Interest in New Drug Discovery Programs from Plants
    • Summary
    • References
  • Chapter 10. Serendipity in the Exploration of Biodiversity What Good are Weedy Tomatoes?
    • The Discovery of a New Tomato
    • How Much is a Wild Tomato Worth?
    • A New Species of Wild Maize
    • The Continuing Importance of Botanical Exploration
    • References
  • Chapter 11. The Outlook for new Agricultural and Industrial Products from the Tropics
    • Agriculture
    • New Crops
    • Improvement of Crop Species Through Cross-Breeding
    • Natural Pesticides
    • Industry
    • Fats and Oils
    • Fibers
    • The Role of the Ethnobotanist
    • References
• PART 3. DIVERSITY AT RISK: TROPICAL FORESTS
  • Chapter 12. Our Diminishing Tropical Forests
  • Chapter 13. The Tropical Forest Canopy The Heart of Biotic Diversity
    • The Problem
    • The History
    • References
  • Chapter 14. Tropical Dry Forests The Most Endangered Major Tropical Ecosystem
    • Diversity in the Dry Forest
    • A Many-Faced Threat
    • Future Prospects
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
  • Chapter 15. Deforestation and Indians in Brazilian Amazonia
    • The Yanomami of Northern Brazil
    • The Kayapo of Central Brazil
    • The Rights and Wrongs of Shifting Cultivation
    • Indian Productivity in the Tropical Forest
    • The Impact of Deforestation on Indian Life
    • Indian Managers of the Rain Forests
    • References
  • Chapter 16. Primate Diversity and the Tropical Forest Case Studies from Brazil and Madagascar and the Importance of the Megadiversity Countries
• PART 4. DIVERSITY AT RISK: THE GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
  • Chapter 17. Lessons from Mediterranean-Climate Regions
    • Community Diversity in Tropical and Temperate Regions
    • Mediterranean-Climate Floristic Diversity
    • Increasing Biotic Diversity—the Invaders
    • References
  • Chapter 18. Structural and Functional Diversity in Temperate Forests
    • Maintaining Successional States
    • Maintaining Structural and Functional Diversity
    • Protecting Aquatic Diversity
    • Developing Effective Stewardship Programs
    • Incorporating Biodiversity Objectives into Management
    • References
  • Chapter 19. Diversity in and Among Grasslands
    • Grazing and Agriculture Conversions
    • More Subtle Impacts
    • References
  • Chapter 20. Diversity and Biological Invasions of Oceanic Islands
    • Scope of the Problem
    • Why are Islands Susceptible?
    • What Can Be Done?
    • Identification of Problem Species
    • Identification of Critical Habitats
    • Habitat Destruction
    • Ecological Research on Islands
    • References
• PART 5. THE VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY
  • Chapter 21. Economics and the Preservation of Biodiversity
  • Chapter 22. Commodity, Amenity, and Morality The Limits of Quantification in Valuing Biodiversity
  • Chapter 23. The Rise of the Global Exchange Economy and the Loss of Biological Diversity
  • Chapter 24. Why Put a Value on Biodiversity?
  • Chapter 25. What Mainstream Economists Have to Say About the Value Biodiversity
    • Welfare Change Measurement Implements an Explicit Ethical Framework
    • The Economic Approach is not Limited to the Commercial Domain
    • There is an (Almost) Adequate Conceptual Basis for Economic Valuation of Biodiversity
    • Techniques for Empirical Valuation Exist and are Applicable to Many Biodiversity Issues, but Lack of Information Can Be Daunting
    • Policy Decision Criteria Have Been Proposed
    • The Empirical Cupboard is Not Bare
    • Further Comments on the Mainstream Economics Approach
    • References
• PART 6. HOW IS BIODIVERSITY MONITORED AND PROTECTED
  • Chapter 26. Monitoring Biological Diversity for Setting Priorities in Conservation
    • The Gap Analysis Concept
    • An Underlying Concept
    • References
  • Chapter 27. Information Management for the Conservation of Biodiversity
    • Natural Heritage Data Centers
    • Networking and Central Data Bases
    • Applications of the Data
    • Interactions with Scientists and the Public
    • References
  • Chapter 28. Identifying and Protecting the Origins of Our Food Plants
    • The International Board for Plant Genetic Resources Program
    • Crop Origins and Germplasm Use
    • Evaluation of the Resources
    • Scientific Support for Genetic Resources Work
    • Ex Situ and in Situ Preservation
    • References
  • Chapter 29. Conserving and Monitoring Biotic Diversity Some African Examples
    • Biogeographic Setting
    • Patterns of Species Richness and Endemism
    • Approaches to the Conservation of Biotic Diversity in Africa
    • Biotic Classification Systems
    • Assessing the Adequacy of Current Protected Area Cover
    • Identifying Gaps in the Network
    • Monitoring the System
    • Lessons Learned
    • References
• PART 7. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: HOW CAN THEY HELP
  • Chapter 30. Can Technology Aid Species Preservation?
    • Four Obstacles to Species Survival
    • Problem and Application
    • Limitations of Science and Technology
    • Numbers Versus Technology
    • Technology is Expensive
    • Buying Time
    • References
  • Chapter 31. Conservation of Biological Diversity in Botanical Gardens
    • Methods of Ex Situ Conservation
    • The Genetic Consequences of Ex Situ Conservation
    • Some Practical Issues
    • What Then is the Specific Role for Botanical Gardens in Conservation?
    • References
  • Chapter 32. Using Science and Technology to Reestablish Species Lost in Nature
    • Reintroductions
    • Captive Breeding in Wildlife Management
    • References
  • Chapter 33. Intensive Technology in the Care of Ex Situ Populations of Vanishing Species
    • Scope of Ex Situ Management Problem
    • Nutrition
    • Animal Restraint and Capture
    • Biomedical Resources
    • Identification and Data Collection
    • Reproduction
    • Population Biology and Molecular Genetics
    • Information Technology
    • Computer Software and ISIS
    • In Situ and Ex Situ Methods
    • Ethics and Value Systems
    • References
  • Chapter 34. Cryobiology, Embryo Transfer, and Artificial Insemination in Ex Situ Animal Conservation Programs
    • Embryo Transfer
    • Cryopreservation of Embryos
    • Artificial Insemination
    • Semen Cryopreservation
    • Future Prospects
    • References
• PART 8. RESTORATION ECOLOGY: CAN WE RECOVER LOST GROUND?
  • Chapter 35. Ecological Restoration Reflections on a Half-Century of Experience at the University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum
    • Pioneering Restoration at the University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum
    • Technical, Ecological Feasibility
    • Social, Economic Factors
    • References
  • Chapter 36. Restoring Diversity in Salt Marshes Can We Do It?
    • Restoration Plans
    • Conclusions Concerning Restoration Planning
    • Implementation of Restoration Projects
    • Prospects for the Future
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
  • Chapter 37. Restoration of Degraded Lands in the Amazon Basin
    • Natural Disturbances in Amazonia
    • Disturbance by Humans in Amazonia
    • A Role for Restoration Ecology
    • Restoration Ecology Strategies
    • References
  • Chapter 38. Increasing Diversity by Restoring Damaged Ecosystems
    • Evidence for Cautious Optimism
    • Obstacles to Restoration Research
    • Planning to Increase Diversity
    • Integrated Resource Management
    • Establishment of Ecological Reserves
    • Gnotobiotic Ecosystems
    • Groundwater Detoxification
    • Prospects for Restoration Ecology
    • References
  • Chapter 39. Restoring Diversity The Search for a Social and Economic Context
• PART 9. ALTERNATIVES TO DESTRUCTION
  • Chapter 40. Are There Alternatives to Destruction?
  • Chapter 41. Agroecology and in Situ Conservation of Native Crop Diversity in the Third World
    • Peasant Agriculture and Crop Germplasm Resources
    • Toward a Strategy for in Situ Crop Genetic Conservation
    • The Future
    • References
  • Chapter 42. Alternatives to Destruction Research in Panama
    • Management of the Green Iguana (Iguana Iguana)
    • Captive Breeding of the Paca (Cuniculus Paca)
    • Forest Gardening
    • Management of Game Mammals
    • References
  • Chapter 43. Biological Engineering for Sustainable Biomass Production
    • Wood Grass
    • Contour Hedgerows
    • References
• PART 10. POLICIES TO PROTECT DIVERSITY
  • Chapter 44. Preserving Biological Diversity in the Tropical Forests of the Asian Region
    • Status of the Region's Closed Forests
    • Solutions to Deforestation
    • Policy Reforms
    • Role of the Development Agencies
    • References
  • Chapter 45. The Tropical Forestry Action Plan Recent Progress and New Initiatives
    • Reasons to Be Optimistic
    • Tropical Forestry Action Plan
    • Successful Development Projects
    • What are Some of the Solutions?
    • References
  • Chapter 46. International Development and the Protection of Biological Diversity
    • The Developing Country
    • Habitat Conservation—Key to the Problem and the Solution
    • The Need for a Systematic Approach to Conservation
    • The Objectives and Role of International Development Assistance
    • Future Directions
    • References
• PART 11. PRESENT PROBLEMS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS
  • Chapter 47. Diverse Considerations
    • Species Abundance
    • Limitations of our Knowledge
    • Sociological Issues
    • Economic Pressures
    • References
  • Chapter 48. The Conservation of Biodiversity in Latin America A Perspective
    • Conservation Awareness
    • The Socioeconomic Environment
    • The Political Environment
    • The Technical Environment
    • Considerations for Shared Responsibilities
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
  • Chapter 49. A Major New Opportunity to Finance the Preservation of Biodiversity
    • Types of Wildland Management Components
    • Significance for Biological Diversity
    • References
    • Appendix A: The World Bank's Project Cycle
  • Chapter 50. And Today We're Going to Talk about Biodiversity … that's Right, Biodiversity
  • Chapter 51. The Effect of Global Climatic Change on Natural Communities
    • Future Climate
    • Species Ranges Shift in Response to Climate Change
    • Localized Species May Not be Able to Colonize New Habitat
    • Management Implications
    • Actions that Can Be Taken
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
• PART 12. WAYS OF SEEING THE BIOSPHERE
  • Chapter 52. Mind in the Biosphere; Mind of the Biosphere
    • Motivation
    • References
  • Chapter 53. A Mammal Gallery Five Word Pictures and Three Poems
  • Chapter 54. Cold Water Spirit
  • Chapter 55. A Christian View of Biodiversity
  • Chapter 56. The Earth as a Living Organism
• PART 13. EPILOGUE
  • Chapter 57. Epilogue

The views expressed in this book are solely those of the individual authors and are not necessarily the views of the National Academy of Sciences or of the Smithsonian Institution.

The National Academy of Sciences was chartered by Congress in 1863 as a private, nonprofit organization dedicated to the furtherance of science and engineering for the public welfare. In 1916 the National Research Council was organized, enabling the Academy to draw upon the entire American scientific and technical community in the pursuit of its mandate to provide independent advice to the nation on critical scientific and technical questions.

The Smithsonian Institution was created by act of Congress in 1846 in accordance with the will of the Englishman, James Smithson, who in 1826 bequeathed his property to the United States of America, "to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." The Smithsonian has since evolved into an institution devoted to public education, research and national service in the arts, sciences and history. This independent federal establishment is the world's largest museum complex and is responsible for public and scholarly activities, exhibitions and research projects nationwide and overseas.

The National Forum on BioDiversity was developed by the Board on Basic Biology of the National Research Council's Commission on Life Sciences and by the Smithsonian Institution's Directorate of International Activities.

The National Forum on BioDiversity, on which this book is based, was developed by the Board on Basic Biology of the National Research Council's Commission on Life Sciences and by the Smithsonian Institution's Directorate of International Activities.