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National Research Council (US) Committee on a Review of the Smithsonian Institution's National Zoological Park. Animal Care and Management at the National Zoo: Interim Report. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2004.
Animal Care and Management at the National Zoo: Interim Report.
Show detailsTo appreciate the scope of the study it is worthwhile to consider briefly the particular history of the National Zoo, its budget, the range of its operations, and its main missions. The National Zoo was created by an Act of Congress in 1889 for “the advancement of science and recreation of the people” (NZP History, 2003). In 1890 the zoo became part of the Smithsonian Institution (NZP History, 2003). It is one of 16 museums in the Smithsonian complex, from which it receives the majority of its budget. In fiscal year 2003 the federal appropriation to the National Zoo was approximately $23 million out of a total base budget of $43.5 million (see Table 1-1), which also includes business income, grants, gifts, and support from Friends of the National Zoo (FONZ) (NZP Budgets, September 24, 2003). In addition, the National Zoo received $18.75 million for capital improvement from the Congress in 2003, and it is slated for continued capital support through 2006. Unlike most other zoos receiving substantial public funding, the National Zoo does not charge admission for its estimated two million annual visitors. Despite its quasi-government status, the National Zoo is a complex business operation, which depends on private as well as federal support for its operations. Direct Federal support through the Congress, plus its location in the nation's capital and accessibility to the many visitors of Washington, D.C., endow the National Zoo with a special aura and prominence. Some would argue that the National Zoo is the nation's zoo, and that its well-being should be a matter of national and not just local concern.
TABLE 1-1
National Zoological Park Operating Budget.
The operating and capital improvement budgets for the National Zoo come from a combination of sources: the Smithsonian Institution, the Smithsonian Institution Trust, and FONZ. From 1999 to 2003, the budget for salaries and expenses increased approximately 17 percent (see Table 1-1); funds for capital improvements increased from $4.4 million to $18.75 million (see Table 1-2). In fiscal year 2004 it is anticipated that the personnel budget will decrease because National Zoo facilities staff are being transferred to the Smithsonian Office of Facilities Engineering and Operations (NZP Budgets, September 24, 2003). A 1992 accreditation report by the American Aquarium and Zoo Association (AZA, 1992) noted that the National Zoo had sufficient financial support at the time to maintain the zoo, but the zoo needed a plan to support program development and capital improvements.
TABLE 1-2
National Zoological Park Capital Budget from the Smithsonian Institution's Federal Appropriation.
The National Zoo consists of two campuses. The original site, on 166 acres of Rock Creek Park in northwest Washington, D.C., is open to the public 364 days of the year and houses most of the present collection of approximately 420 species and over 2,500 animals. The second site is the Conservation and Research Center (CRC) on 3,200 acres in Front Royal, Virginia, approximately 65 miles from Washington; the latter is open to the public only on special “open” days, when the CRC showcases its science. The CRC serves as a refuge for vanishing wildlife and as a laboratory for propagating a few rare species and for conservation biology. It is also a classroom for training wildlife biologists from the United States and abroad. These two campuses participate as partners in conducting the three major missions of first-class modern zoos: education, research, and conservation.
The National Zoo, like all other zoos, must attract the public through its animal collection. As the American public has become more educated about wildlife, the destruction of habitat, and the accompanying threat to animal species over the last quarter century, it has also learned to be more sensitive to the treatment of animals in the wild and in captivity. Likewise, scrutiny of zoos by the media has become more intense. The public perception of zoos is therefore changing rapidly. No longer can a public zoo be viewed simply as a place of entertainment where exotic animals are viewed in cages. Modern expectation is that the wild animals of the collection be displayed in ecologically “natural” surroundings that are sensitive to their physical and psychological needs (Coe, 2003). The accreditation process for zoos, aquariums, and wildlife parks by the AZA reflects these changing expectations and sets standards for how a world-class zoo should operate.
The National Zoo is one of 213 zoo and aquariums accredited by the AZA (AZA, 2003c). During its last AZA inspection, the National Zoo accreditation was extended for one year with a directive to address deficiencies within that timeframe. This accreditation is due to expire in March 2004. The CRC is one of sixteen certified related facilities (AZA, 2003c). The CRC was certified for five years during its last AZA inspection in March 2003. This CRC certification is due to expire in March 2008.
PERSONNEL
Day-to-day operations of the National Zoo involve employees and volunteers within the organization, professionals from other parts of the Smithsonian, advisory boards, and others outside the National Zoo, including contractors, who primarily work to maintain the National Zoo's animals and physical plant. The work of the National Zoo includes exhibition, education, research, and recreation. The National Zoo organizational structure (NZP, NZP Organizational Structure, November 20, 2003; see Figure 1-1) is characterized by a hierarchical distribution of management authority and responsibility. At the apex of the structure is the zoo director, who interfaces with three advisory boards: (1) the Friends of the National Zoo, (2) the National Zoological Park Advisory Board, and (3) the CRC Foundation. The director is supported by one deputy director.
FIGURE 1-1
Organizational chart for the Smithsonian Institution's National Zoological Park. SOURCE: NZP Organizational Chart (received November 20, 2003).
The National Zoo has eight departments, which essentially operate independently. Departments are led by assistant directors who report to the deputy director and the director of the zoo. The Animal Programs Department (NZP, Animal Programs Organization Chart, November 20, 2003; see Figure 1-2) has primary responsibility over the day-to-day care and management of the animal collections at the Rock Creek Park facility. In the Animal Programs Department assistant curators report to associate curators (who in turn report to the general curator) and are generally individuals who have worked in the National Zoo for many years. The CRC (NZP, CRC Organizational Chart, November 20, 2003; see Figure 1-3) has primary responsibility over the day-to-day care and management of the animal collections at the facility in Front Royal, Virginia. The Animal Health Department includes veterinary and nutrition staff (see Figure 1-4). The Pathology Department has primary responsibility for examining animal deaths, and at the present time administers the pest management program (see Figure 1-5). The other four departments are Public Affairs and Communications, Administration and Technology, Exhibits and Outreach, and NZP Police.
FIGURE 1-2
Organizational chart for Animal Programs Department. SOURCE: NZP Animal Programs Department Organizational Chart (received November 20, 2003).
FIGURE 1-3
Organizational chart forthe Conservation and Research Center. SOURCE: NZP Conservation and Research Center Organizational Chart (received November 20, 2003).
FIGURE 1-4
Organizational chart for the Department of Animal Health. SOURCE: NZP Animal Health Department Organizational Chart (received February 11, 2004).
FIGURE 1-5
Organizational chart for the Department of Pathology. SOURCE: NZP Pathology Department Organizational Chart (received February 11, 2004).
The National Zoo employs both federal staff and outside contractors. The total number of government full-time equivalents (FTEs) decreased from about 350 in 1993 to 290 in 2002 (NZP, National Zoo Work Years September 24, 2003). A decrease in the number of permanent staff has been partially offset by gains in temporary employees, although total FTEs have decreased overall during this time. Of note, in 1996 a large proportion of curator staff left the National Zoo during a federal employee buyout program. The percentage attrition in administrative staff was comparable or higher than among non-administrative staff. While the number of employees at the National Zoo has decreased significantly during the past decade, the number of animals under the care of these employees has also decreased significantly (detailed in the Animal Care and Management chapter). Overall loss of staff has been offset to some extent by recruitment of keeper staff, whose numbers increased by six during this 10-year timeframe (NZP, Staff Gains and Losses FY 1993-2000, September 24, 2003).
NATIONAL ZOO GENERAL MEMORANDA AND BEST PRACTICES
The National Zoo has an extensive set of General Memoranda (see Appendix A) that details standard operating procedures for employees. Most of the General Memoranda have been revised or are new since April 1, 2003. Additionally, in July 2003 the General Memoranda were summarized into Best Practices for most departments (NZP , Best Practices, 2003). These Best Practices were distributed to all staff, and will be distributed to FONZ employees and new zoo employees.
Many departments and units at the National Zoo have written protocols (NZP Submission, September 24, 2003). The Animal Programs Department's Best Practice Manual serves as a guideline for keepers (NZP, Department of Animal Programs – Best Practices, 2003). Each animal area also has its own protocols for animal care, and are maintained centrally by the general curator.
Best Practices were developed by the National Zoological Park (NZP Submission, September 24, 2003) from their General Memoranda (NZP, General Memoranda, August 8, 2003) for 10 departments and units at the zoo. Each Best Practice manual contains summaries of the General Memoranda identified as core to the institution (General Memoranda #1-15). Additionally, other General Memoranda deemed necessary for successful operation were summarized for each department or unit individually; thus each of the 10 departments or units has unique Best Practices. Best Practices have been developed for the following departments or units at the National Zoo:
- Office of the Director
- Office of Communications and Public Affairs
- Department of Animal Programs
- Department of Conservation and Research
- Department of Administration and Technology
- Department of Exhibits and Outreach
- National Zoological Park Police
- Department of Animal Health
- Department of Pathology
- Office of Facilities Engineering and Operations
THE ANIMAL COLLECTION
The National Zoo's animal collection currently consists of approximately 2,600 animals representing just over 400 species (NZP, Status of the Collection Report, 2002). The collection has undergone dramatic changes in the past 10 years. From 1993 to 2002 the size of the animal collection has decreased 54 percent (see Figure 1-6). This decrease is due to several factors, including a decrease in the number of animals acquired by the zoo annually, as well as an increase in removal of animals from the collection. As shown in Figure 1-7, the number of animals acquired annually by the zoo was fairly stable from 1993 through 1999, but starting in 2000, there was decrease in the number of animals acquired by the zoo annually, with a 67 percent decrease in annual acquisitions from 1999 to 2002.
FIGURE 1-6
Annual status of the National Zoo animal collection. The annual counts for each year are a tabulation of individually counted animals, as well as estimates for groups of animals (such as fish, bats, and frogs), that are not counted individually. SOURCE: (more...)
FIGURE 1-7
Annual animal acquisitions by the National Zoo. Acquisitions include animals born at the National Zoo or acquired from other institutions. SOURCE: Tabulated from NZP, Status of the Collection Reports, 1993-2002.
Even though annual acquisitions of animals remained relatively stable throughout the 1990s, the size of the animal collection continued to decline. This decline occurred because the number of animals that were being removed from the collection, either through death or relocation to other institutions (see Figure 1-8), was greater than the number of animals being acquired each year (animals born at the National Zoo or acquired from other institutions). In particular a large number of animals were removed from the collection during 1995-1997. This was partly because of a deliberate reduction in the number of mammals held at the CRC, but it was also because of a large number of animal deaths in those years (due to an increase in the number of fish, amphibian, and invertebrate animal deaths). The CRC deliberately reduced the number of mammalian species in its inventory by about 40 percent during this timeframe through relocation of their animals to other institutions. This decision to concentrate on only approximately 10 species with a high research return provided greater focus to the CRC's research effort.
FIGURE 1-8.
Number of animals removed from the National Zoo collection annually. Animals are removed from the collection either by death or relocation of the animal to another institution. SOURCE: Tabulated from NZP, Status of the Collection Reports, 1993-2002.
Annual mortality rates are one method of assessing fluctuation in a zoo collection. This rate is determined by calculating the percentage of the total collection that dies each year, usually using the data from an annual animal inventory. To evaluate the National Zoo's annual mortality rate (see Figure 1-9) in the context of the larger zoo community, the committee sought to data from other zoos in the United States. The committee has obtained mortality data from two zoos at this time. The collection size of these two zoos currently range from just under 2,000 specimens to just over 3,700, representing approximately 240 and 750 species, respectively. Both zoo's mortality rates have remained relatively stable or declined over the past 10 years, averaging 6.8 percent (ranging from 4.7 to 9.8 percent) and 10.6 percent (ranging from 8 to 12 percent ) (Denver Zoological Gardens, 2003; North Carolina Zoological Park, 2004) annually. The National Zoo's mortality rate during the same period averaged 10.5 percent (ranging from 6.3 to 15.9 percent). The fluctuation in the National Zoo's mortality rate is in part due to biological variation, changing nature of the animal collection (species represented and animal numbers within individual species), and aging of the animal collection. Readers should be aware that the mortality rates at a zoo, whose collection is usually made up of animals with life spans much shorter than those of humans, depend greatly upon the length of lifespan and robustness of the species, the ratio of short-lived to long-lived animals in a collection, as well as the age and health of individual animals. The committee has requested data from numerous institutions and anticipates having additional data for analysis of annual mortality rates in the final report.
FIGURE 1-9.
Annual mortality rate at the National Zoo, by animal group. The annual mortality rate is calculated as a percentage of the animal collection that dies each calendar year. Mortality rates were calculated for fish, amphibians, and invertebrates (fish, amphib, (more...)
THE NATIONAL ZOO AS PART OF THE LARGER ZOOLOGICAL COMMUNITY
To review the National Zoo as part of the larger zoo community, data from AZA-accredited zoos (AZA, 2003b) were analyzed for vertebrate animal collection size, total staff number, and annual budget. For data consistency, institutions were excluded from the committee's analysis when the institution was an aquarium or had greater than 70 percent of its vertebrate collection as fish or when no staff or budget data was available. This yielded 156 AZA-accredited institutions, including the National Zoo, for comparison.
For the data from 156 institutions reviewed, budgets ranged from approximately $60,000 to $89 million annually, with an average of $6.6 million (AZA, 2003b). The National Zoo reported a budget of $34 million (AZA, 2003b), somewhat lower than the operating budget (excluding FONZ operations) provided to the committee by the National Zoo (see Table 1-1). The National Zoo's budget is larger than 96 percent of the AZA-accredited zoos (see Figure 1-10). Staff size ranged from 6 to 1,390 (average of 108) for the 156 institutions (AZA, 2003b). The National Zoo staff is larger than 94 percent of the AZA-accredited zoos (Figure 1-11). The vertebrate animal collection size of the 156 AZA-accredited institutions ranged from 20 animals (6 species) to 12,907 animals (824 species) (AZA, 2003b). The National Zoo vertebrate animal collection size is larger than 89 percent of the other institutions with 2278 specimens (see Figure 1-12). Including invertebrates, the National Zoo collection is approximately 2,500 animals (similar to that discussed earlier). The National Zoo had a vertebrate-animal-to-staff-number ratio of 7.8:1 in its collection (see Figure 1-13), less animals per staff member than 72 percent of the AZA-accredited institutions. This ratio includes all staff (animal care, animal health, research, administrative, service, etc,) reported by each institution; approximately 50 percent of the National Zoo staff is involved directly in animal care and management (Animal Programs, Animal Health, and Pathology departments, and the Animal and Support Department at CRC). Table 1-3 presents 10 AZA-accredited zoos with 2,000 to 3,000 vertebrate animals in their collection, including the National Zoo. Table 1-4 presents 10 AZA-accredited zoos with $20 to $46 million annual budgets, including the National Zoo.
FIGURE 1-10
Annual budget for AZA- accredited institutions reported in 2003. SOURCE: Tabulated from the 2004 AZA Membership Directory (AZA, 2003b).
FIGURE 1-11
Total number of staff for AZA-accredited institutions reported in 2003. SOURCE: Tabulated from the 2004 AZA Membership Directory (AZA, 2003b).
FIGURE 1-12
Vertebrate collection inventory for AZA- accredited institutions reported in 2003. SOURCE: Tabulated from The 2004 AZA Membership Directory (AZA, 2003b).
FIGURE 1-13
Number of vertebrate animals per staff for AZA- accredited institutions reported in 2003. SOURCE: Tabulated from the 2004 AZA Membership Directory (AZA, 2003b).
TABLE 1-3
Annual Budget and Staff Number for 10AZA-accredited Zoos with 2,000 to 3,000 Vertebrate Animals in their Collection (Including the National Zoo).
TABLE 1-4
Animal Collection Size and Staff Number for Ten AZA-accredited Zoos with $20 Million to $46 Million Annual Budget (Including the National Zoo).
Guidelines and Standard Practices for Zoos
Animal care and management at zoos has changed dramatically in the past several decades, guided by scientific peer-reviewed literature and other literature (regulatory, accreditation, and professional standards and data available in proceedings). Specific regulatory standards have been established by the Animal Welfare Act (enforced by the USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service) and the Public Health Service Policy on the Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Standards have been developed and are obligatory for accreditation by the American Zoo and Aquarium Association. National Research Council reports serve as the scientific basis for policy and regulations pertaining to animal nutrition (Animal Nutrition Series) and to the care and use of animals used in research (Institute for Laboratory Animal Welfare publications) as well as standards utilized in industry, research, and academe. Additional standards and guidelines have been developed by such professional organizations as the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, Zoological Registrars Association, American Veterinary Medical Association, and the Nutrition Advisory Group of the AZA. Many of these same organizations have annual proceedings that contain new and revised opinions on animal care and management. Some data on zoo animal care and management are available in the scientific peer-reviewed literature. The committee has reviewed much grey and scientific literature and has judiciously used these various sources to formulate its findings.
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