The effects of HIV-1 in the nervous system are a topic of avid interest to investigators and clinicians focused on HIV, judging by the large and discriminating audience at the oral sessions and poster presentations relating to neuroscience at the 19th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Major areas of investigation at this year's conference included the use of neuropsychological testing and neuroimaging to assess the state of the central nervous system (CNS) and effects of antiretroviral therapy during HIV infection as well as basic and clinical studies of neuropathogenesis of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND). Numerous important suggestions emerged during the meeting. Among them was the proposition that earlier initiation of therapy might benefit the CNS. Another was that the relationship between HIV and normal aging remains unclear and warrants further study. Still another was that ongoing abnormalities may persist despite treatment with antiretroviral therapy-including measurable brain microglial activation, detectable cerebrospinal fluid HIV, and progression of neurologic impairment.